Spatio-temporal Evolution Characteristics and Driving Forces of Winter Urban Heat Island:A Case Study of Rapid Urbanization Area of Fuzhou City,China

Under the influence of anthropogenic and climate change,the problems caused by urban heat island(UHI)has become increasingly prominent.In order to promote urban sustainable development and improve the quality of human settlements,it is significant for exploring the evolution characteristics of urban thermal environment and analyzing its driving forces.Taking the Landsat series images as the basic data sources,the winter land surface temperature(LST)of the rapid urbanization area of Fuzhou City in China was quantitatively retrieved from 2001 to 2021.Combing comprehensively the standard deviation ellipse model,profile analysis and GeoDetector model,the spatio-temporal evolution characteristics and influencing factors of the winter urban thermal environment were systematically analyzed.The results showed that the winter LST presented an increasing trend in the study area during 2001–2021,and the winter LST of the central urban regions was significantly higher than the suburbs.There was a strong UHI effect from 2001 to 2021with an expansion trend from the central urban regions to the suburbs and coastal areas in space scale.The LST of green lands and wetlands are significantly lower than croplands,artificial surface and unvegetated lands.Vegetation and water bodies had a significant mitigation effect on UHI,especially in the micro-scale.The winter UHI had been jointly driven by the underlying surface and socio-economic factors in a nonlinear or two-factor interactive enhancement mode,and socio-economic factors had played a leading role.This research could provide data support and decision-making references for rationally planning urban layout and promoting sustainable urban development.

Geospatial Analysis of Urban Heat Island Effects and Tree Equity

In recent decades, Urban Heat Island Effects have become more pronounced and more widely examined. Despite great technological advances, our current societies still experience great spatial disparity in urban forest access. Urban Heat Island Effects are measurable phenomenon that are being experienced by the world’s most urbanized areas, including increased summer high temperatures and lower evapotranspiration from having impervious surfaces instead of vegetation and trees. Tree canopy cover is our natural mitigation tool that absorbs sunlight for photosynthesis, protects humans from incoming radiation, and releases cooling moisture into the air. Unfortunately, urban areas typically have low levels of vegetation. Vulnerable urban communities are lower-income areas of inner cities with less access to heat protection like air conditioners. This study uses mean evapotranspiration levels to assess the variability of urban heat island effects across the state of Tennessee. Results show that increased developed land surface cover in Tennessee creates measurable changes in atmospheric evapotranspiration. As a result, the mean evapotranspiration levels in areas with less tree vegetation are significantly lower than the surrounding forested areas. Central areas of urban cities in Tennessee had lower mean evapotranspiration recordings than surrounding areas with less development. This work demonstrates the need for increased tree canopy coverage.

A review on the generation, determination and mitigation of Urban Heat Island

Urban Heat Island （UHI） is considered as one of the major problems in the 21st century posed to human beings as a result of urbanization and industrialization of human civilization. The large amount of heat generated from urban structures, as they consume and re-radiate solar radiations, and from the anthropogenic heat sources are the main causes of UHI. The two heat sources increase the temperatures of an urban area as compared to its surroundings, which is known as Urban Heat Island Intensity （UHII）. The problem is even worse in cities or metropolises with large population and extensive economic activities. The estimated three billion people living in the urban areas in the world are directly exposed to the problem, which will be increased significantly in the near future. Due to the severity of the problem, vast research effort has been dedicated and a wide range of literature is available for the subject. The literature available in this area includes the latest research approaches, concepts, methodologies, latest investigation tools and mitigation measures. This study was carded out to review and summarize this research area through an investigation of the most important feature of UHI. It was concluded that the heat re-radiated by the urban structures plays the most important role which should be investigated in details to study urban heating especially the UHI. It was also concluded that the future research should be focused on design and planning parameters for reducing the effects of urban heat island and ultimately living in a better environment.

Physical, Psychological, and Social Health Impact of Temperature Rise Due to Urban Heat Island Phenomenon and Its Associated Factors

The Urban Heat Island Effect（UHI）has now become a commonly observed phenomenon worldwide.Indeed,it has become a significant environmental effect of urbanisation.In Malaysia,research results showed that UHI effects are very evident in several cities such as Kuala Lumpur and Putrajaya.UHI effect has long been observed to cause temperature of cities.

APPLICATION OF WRF/UCM IN THE SIMULATION OF A HEAT WAVE EVENT AND URBAN HEAT ISLAND AROUND GUANGZHOU

This paper evaluated the performance of a coupled modeling system,Weather Research and Forecasting(WRF)/Urban Canopy Model(UCM),in the simulation of a heat wave event which occurred around Guangzhou during late June through early July,2004.Results from three experiments reveal that the UCM with new land data(hereafter referred to as E-UCM)reproduces the best 2-m temperature evolution and the smallest minimum absolute average error as compared with the other two experiments,the BPA-Bulk Parameterization Approach with new land data(E-BPA)and the UCM with original U.S. Geological Survey land data(E-NOU).The E-UCM is more useful in capturing the temporal and spatial distribution of the nighttime Urban Heat Island(UHI).Differences in surface energy balance between the urban and suburban areas show that low daytime albedo causes more absorption of solar radiation by urban areas.Due to the lack of vegetation which inhibits cooling by evapotranspiration,most of the incoming energy over urban areas is partitioned into sensible heat flux and therefore heats the surface and enhances the heat wave.During nighttime,the energy in the urban area is mainly from soil heat flux.Although some energy is partitioned as outgoing long wave radiation,most of the soil heat flux is partitioned into sensible heat flux due to the small latent heat flux at night.This leads to the development of nighttime UHI and the increase of the magnitude and duration of heat waves within the municipality.

Urban Heat Island Characterization and Isotherm Mapping Using Geo-Informatics Technology in Ahmedabad City, Gujarat State, India

India has witnessed tremendous industrialization in the last five decades. This has led to migration of masses from rural areas towards cities for jobs and businesses. With increase in the population, the demand for residences has also increased which has escalated growth of slum areas and haphazard planning in suburbs. City of Ahmedabad is one such urban metropolis in the state of Gujarat, India. Being the financial capital of Gujarat, population of the city has increased many folds since 1980s. Congested and unsustainable planning and increasing in the emissions from industries and vehicles in certain areas of the city have given birth to many climatic issues. One of these major problems is the Urban Heat Island (UHI) phenomena. This has increased the temperature by four to five degrees and has also severely affected air quality. Satellite based Remote sensing data can provide temperature information of various land use classes. Remote Sensing data along with in-situ surface measurements can help to identify urban heat island intensities and hotspots in the cities. A study on heat island characterization and isotherm mapping was taken up in Ahmedabad City. In the present study, Surface Heat Island (SHI) effect is studied using satellite data along with field measurements. Thermal infrared data from Landsat ETM band-6 have been effectively used for monitoring temperature differences of various land use classes in urban areas. The study aims to identify and study the urban hot spots using the data from LANDSAT-5 and field data collected using IR Gun in various zones of Ahmedabad City. The results of this study indicated that the surface temperature near industrial areas and dense urban areas was higher as compared to other suburban areas in the Ahmedabad City.

An Evaluation of Measures Regarding Road Traffic against the Urban Heat Island in the Tokyo Ward Area, Japan

This study aims to evaluate measures against the Urban Heat Island (UHI) regarding artificial exhaust heat of road traffic using Geographic Information Systems (GIS) in the Tokyo Ward Area where the degree of UHI is particularly strong. We developed a GIS database that reflected road traffic conditions, and calculated the volume of artificial exhaust heat of road traffic to evaluate measures against the UHI. The findings of this study can be summarized in the following three points. 1) Artificial exhaust heat volume for moving targets was remarkably higher than that of stationary targets and, in particular, artificial exhaust heat volume was high on roads with remarkable numbers of vehicles and running speeds such as expressways and ring roads. 2) In UHI- related policy for moving targets, the suppression of waste heat through choice of fuel burned, improvement of traffic flow by securing space for cyclists and pedestrians, development of bypasses, and upgrading signal control managed to reduce artificial exhaust heat volume, even though there were differences in degree of reduction. 3) In UHI-related policy for stationary targets, special road surfaces and the increase in efficiency of energy consumption equipment achieved a reduction ratio of around 30% in artificial exhaust heat volume, more than moving targets as well as making it possible to expect a reduction in artificial exhaust heat volume on a wide scale.

Impact of Local Climate Zones on the Urban Heat and Dry Islands in Beijing:Spatial Heterogeneity and Relative Contributions

Based on the building height and density data on a 100-m resolution,hourly 2-m temperature and humidity data at83 automatic weather stations,and gridded local climate zone(LCZ)data on a 120-m resolution in urban Beijing in2020,this study first employs the semivariogram combined with building parameters to calculate spatial correlations and has identified an LCZ grid resolution of 500 m suitable for best usage of the available observation data.Then,how the spatially heterogeneous LCZs affect and contribute to the canopy urban heat island intensity(UHII)and urban dry island intensity(UDII)are quantitatively investigated.It is found that UHII is high in winter and low in summer with a unimodal diurnal variation while UDI is low in winter but high in summer with a bimodal diurnal variation.The LCZ with compact mid-rise(open high-rise)buildings exhibits the highest UHII(UDII),followed by the compact high-rise(compact low-rise),while the LCZ of scattered trees presents both the lowest UHII and the lowest UDII.The most significant difference in the UHII(UDII)among the nine LCZ types in the urban area of Beijing is2.62℃(1.1 g kg^(-1)).Area-weighted averaging analysis reveals that the open mid-rise LCZ is the most significant contributor to the UHII(UDII),immediately followed by compact mid-rise(open low-rise),with the least contribution from bare rock or paved(scattered trees).The results also indicate that beyond the intrinsic physical properties of the LCZs of a city,their area proportions cannot be overlooked in evaluating their impact on the UHI and UDI.These quantitatively findings could help urban planners to create a livable urban climate and environment by adjusting the relevant land use.

Urban Planning Based on Nature—A Nature-Based Solution

After an international contest announced by the City of Abu Dhabi “Cool Abu Dhabi Challenge”1 and the article published as a digest of a paper titled A Nature-based Solution [1], the decision has been made to take part in improving thermal comfort in public spaces by mitigating the impact of the effect of Urban Heat Islands (UHI)2 in the city of the Belgrade. The basic research aims at achieving the balance between the conflicting impacts when the buildings with their infrastructure and water-green surrounding area are in such correlation that it fulfils acceptable living and heating standards and reduces the use of fossil fuels for cooling the urban areas (buildings). By implementing the remote detection it is possible to analyze and quantify the impact of over-building on the temperature rise in urban areas as well as the disturbance of the heating comfort and the increased demand for additional cooling. Now it is possible to create virtual models that will incorporate this newly-added urban vegetation into urban plans, depending on the evaporation potential that will affect the microclimate of the urban area. Such natural cooling can be measured and adapted and hence aimed at a potential decrease in areas with UHI emissions [2]. Suitable greenery in the summer season can be a useful improvement which concurrently enables and complements several cooling mechanisms—evaporative cooling and evapotranspiration, i.e. natural cooling systems. The remote detection shall establish and map the “healthy” and “unhealthy” greenery zones—that is the vegetation zones with the highest evaporative potential with the “cooling by evaporation” effect and also, by implementing the urban prediction model, it shall propose green infrastructure corridors aimed at a potential decrease in the Urban Heat Island Emission.

Impacts of Urban Expansion on the Urban Thermal Environment:A Case Study of Changchun,China

Urbanization,especially urban land expansion,has a profound influence on the urban thermal environment.Cities in Northeast China face remarkably uneven development and environmental issues,and thus it is necessary to strengthen the diagnosis of thermal environmental pressure brought by urbanization.In this study,multi remote sensing imageries and statistical approaches,involving piecewise linear regression(PLR),were used to explore urban expansion and its effects on the thermal environment of Changchun City in Jilin Province,China.Results show that Changchun experienced rapid urban expansion from 2000 to 2020,with urban built-up areas increasing from 171.77 to 525.14 km^(2).The area of the city’s urban heat island(UHI)increased dramatically,during both day and night.Using PLR,a positive linear correlation of built-up density with land surface temperature(LST)was detected,with critical breakpoints of 70%-80%during the daytime and 40%-50%at nighttime.Above the thresholds,the magnitude of LST in response to built-up density significantly increased with intensifying urbanization,especially for nighttime LST.An analysis of the relative frequency distributions(RFDs)of LST reveals that rapid urbanization resulted in a significant increase of mean LST in newly urbanized areas,but had weak effects on daytime LST change in existing urban area.Urban expansion also contributed to a constant decrease of spatial heterogeneity of LST in existing urban area,especially at daytime.However,in newly urbanized areas,the spatial heterogeneity of LST was decreased during the daytime but increased at nighttime due to urbanization.

石家庄城市热岛效应:从冠层、表层到土壤深层

利用石家庄城市气象站和附近2个乡村站2009~2012年的逐日地面气温、0~320 cm土壤温度资料,对比分析了石家庄站从冠层、表层到土壤深层的城市热岛(Urban Heat Island,UHI)效应及其差异,结果表明:1)2009~2012年年平均气温UHI强度为0.9℃,0~320 cm土壤温度UHI强度在-0.5~0.2℃之间,气温UHI强度明显强于土壤温度UHI。表层(0 cm)和浅层(5~40 cm)土壤温度基本表现为“热岛效应”,但深层(80~320 cm)土壤温度表现为“冷岛效应”,40~80 cm是二者的转换层位;深层土壤温度可能受局地气候影响呈现出局地性特点。2)春季、夏季、秋季、冬季气温UHI强度分别为1.1℃、0.6℃、0.7℃和1.3℃,夏季最弱,冬季最强。春季和夏季表层和40 cm以上土壤温度表现为热岛,80 cm以下表现为冷岛;秋季不同深度土壤温度均表现为冷岛,320 cm深度冷岛强度最强;冬季表层和80 cm以上土壤温度主要表现为热岛,320 cm深度表现为冷岛;土壤表层热岛强度季节性变化,与气温的基本一致,其物理机制相似。3)各月气温UHI强度在0.5~1.6℃之间,1月最强,7月和10月最弱。表层和40 cm以上土壤温度一般在1~7月和12月表现为热岛,UHI强度多为6月最强,8~11月表现为冷岛;80 cm以下土壤温度多数月份表现为冷岛。4)年和四季平均气温UHI强度具有明显的日变化特征,年和四季表层土壤温度UHI强度也有较为明显的日变化特征,但随土壤深度加大,土壤温度UHI强度的日变化逐渐减弱,并最终转化为冷岛效应。

重庆地区城郊人体舒适度变化特征差异及其影响因素分析

在全球变暖和快速城市化的背景下,热岛/干岛效应增强,在一定程度上影响了人居环境,城区居民面临着健康风险。要制定缓解、控制措施,必须要明确城市化的大气环境效应形成和演化规律对人居环境的影响。以快速城市化的重庆市为例,基于重庆市内15个国家气象站点1980-2020年平均气温、湿度和风速逐日观测资料,采用人体舒适度指数计算公式量化得到了各站点的人体舒适度,并利用ArcGis软件中反距离加权模型(Inverse Distance Weighted,IDW)进行空间插值,得到每个时间段人体舒适度的空间分布演化情况。另外对比分析了城郊气象站点平均气温、饱和水汽压差和相对湿度的时空变化趋势,并结合城市化进程数据,重点检测了重庆市人居热环境随城市化进程演化的趋势,评估了城市化对人体舒适度的影响。结果表明:(1)温度、饱和水汽压差的高值区与相对湿度的低值区发展方向与建成区扩张方向基本一致,形成了以中心城区为中心的高温组团;(2)城市与郊区站点平均气温和饱和水汽压差均呈上升趋势,相对湿度呈下降趋势,但城区站点变“干”变“热”趋势更加明显,热岛/干岛效应显著;(3)城区站点热不舒适日数和冷不舒适日数分别以3.5 d·(10a)^(-1)、-3.6d·(10a)^(-1)的速率呈现出显著性趋势(P<0.05),而郊区站点年际变化较为稳定,城市化使得人体舒适度往炎热不舒适的方向发展;(4)相较于城市缓慢发展阶段,城市快速发展阶段城郊站点年热不舒适度日数之间的差异进一步增大,最大差距一年能达到30 d左右。整体上,重庆市城市发展方向与人居热环境空间演化格局存在较强的相关性。该研究旨在探明重庆市城市化引起的人体舒适度的演化规律,为缓解城市热岛/干岛效应提供直接的科学参考,力求为城市总体规划、改善城市热环境、打造“宜居宜游城市”提供定量化决策依据。

Seasonal Variation and Land-Use/Land-Cover Type Impacts on the Correlation of Urban Heat Island Intensity and Difference Vegetation Index with Satellite Data in Xi’an,China

Green coverage has pronounced influences on urban heat island（UHI） effect, while the impacts of seasonal variation and Land-Use/Land-Cover（LULC） types on this effect has not been implemented. This paper investigated the spatio-seasonal characteristics of urban thermal environment and the vegetation-soil mixed area, and then explored the effects of vegetation status on UHI intensity from the perspectives of seasons and regions in Xi＇an using four Landsat 8 images. UHI intensity index was implemented to extract UHI intensity based on thermal infrared imagery, and difference vegetation index（DVI） was used to represent vegetation-soil mixed area. Results indicated that DVI has impacts on UHI intensity, and their relations vary with season and region. In the whole Xi＇an, if UHI intensity is smaller than-0.1, DVI increases with the increase of UHI intensity; whereas for UHI intensity is greater than-0.1, DVI decreases with increases of the UHI intensity from early spring to autumn. The highest correlation level was discovered in the autumn map（R^2=0.713）. Results of correlation analysis further displayed that DVI positively correlated with UHI intensity at impervious surface, and that the main urban area possessed the best correlation with R^2=0.564 5.

北京城市化进程对城市热岛的影响研究

利用1971—2000年北京20个气象观测站逐日4个时次（02：00、08：00、14：00、20：00）的温度资料。选取具有代表性的城区和郊区多个站点的平均值对北京城市化进程对城市热岛效应的影响、城市热岛强度的日变化和长期变化进行了研究．分析结果指出：（1）北京城市热岛强度和总人口对数呈线性相关关系，其长期变化相关系数为0．76；（2）北京城市建成区的范围与城市热岛影响范围呈同步变化趋势；（3）不同时次城市热岛强度的长期变化指出，北京城市热岛强度以平均每10年0．22℃的速率加剧，其中1999年北京热岛强度达1．13℃（夜间，02：00）；（4）夜间热岛强度明显大于日间．就10年平均而言，20世纪80年代和90年代夜戒热岛强度均超过0．5℃；（5）一天4个时次热岛强度的季节变化趋势基本一致，均表现为冬季强、夏季弱．并且，夜间02：00时热岛最强，中午14：00时热岛最弱．

超大城市热岛效应的季节变化特征及其年际差异

本文以超大城市上海为例,分析了近50年四季城郊温差的总体变化趋势,同时利用城市化进程中4个年份(1987、1990、1997和2004年)9个气象站的气温数据,重点研究了上海地区热岛效应的季节变化特征及年际差异.结果表明,近50年来上海城郊温差逐年显著增长,年平均热岛天数频率为86.0%,年平均热岛强度为1.17℃,秋季热岛频率和强度高于其他季节,累积热岛强度也最大.不同时刻热岛的特征表明,夜间热岛(2∶00,20∶00时刻)累积强度在四季都较大,在春、夏季14∶00时刻热岛累积强度较大,而在秋、冬季8∶00时刻热岛累积强度较大.进一步分析表明,热岛效应的四季差异主要在于较强热岛和强热岛出现频率的差异;秋季大气最稳定的F类型比例较高可能是热岛效应更加显著的原因之一.四个年份对比分析表明,1997年之前的三个年份,热岛效应的四季差异比较显著.之后,随着年代的推移,四季累积热岛强度逐渐趋于均化,并且夏季低强度热岛有向中强热岛和强热岛转化的趋势,一定程度上反映了夏季人为热的贡献.

WRF/UCM在广州高温天气及城市热岛模拟研究中的应用

应用WRF及其耦合的城市冠层模式(UCM,Urban Canopy Model),对2004年6月底—7月初受副热带高压和台风外围气流影响下发生在广州地区的一次高温天气过程进行了数值模拟。考察了WRF/UCM对"城市热岛"及城市高温天气模拟的应用效果。三个不同设计的模拟试验表明,E-UCM试验(新土地利用资料,耦合UCM模式)比E-BPA试验(新土地利用资料,BPA方法)和E-NOU试验(旧土地利用资料,耦合UCM模式)更好地模拟出了城区2 m高度温度的演变,平均绝对误差最小。尤其在夜间,E-UCM试验成功地再现了夜间热岛的形成及分布。城区及郊区地表能量平衡差异的分析表明,日间城区高温与低反射率引起的短波辐射吸收增加有关,由于城区缺少水汽蒸发蒸腾冷却过程,大部分能量收入被分配为感热加热大气。夜间,地表能量收入来自土壤热通量的向上输送,收入能量除部分用于长波辐射之外,由于城区潜热通量小,其余部分仍主要以感热形式加热大气。夜间热岛的形成与感热加热的持续有关,有利于夜间高温的维持。

河谷地形下兰州市城市热岛效应的时空演变研究

基于1999年和2010年的Landsat ETM+和TM影像,以单窗算法反演了兰州市地表温度,研究兰州市最近10 a的城市热岛时空分布以及演变特征。研究结果表明:兰州市城市热岛的空间分布与延展与城市建城区的扩展相一致,热岛范围不断扩大,次中温和中温区大面积减少,相应的次高温和高温区大面积增加,热岛强度明显增强;除了城市下垫面覆盖类型,黄河低温带亦逐渐成为影响城市热岛分布的重要因子。各土地利用类型的平均温度均有所升高,建设用地和未利用地温度最高,对热岛效应贡献最大,是城市热岛的主要贡献因子,绿地和水体能够很好的缓解热岛效应。地表温度和信息指数NDVI、MNDWI、NDBI、NDBaI在兰州市河谷空间格局上显著相关,存在很好的对应关系。

北京城市热岛环境时空变化规律研究

借助北京地区1997年、2004年的LandsatTM热红外图像,在RS和GIS技术的支持下,利用大气探空数据对 图像进行大气校正,采用单窗算法反演得到北京市区和周围地区的地表温度分布图,地面验证表明单窗算法反演 地表温度具有较高的精度。研究发现,北京市存在明显的城市热岛效应;不同下垫面所对应的地表温度有明显差 异,总体上城区地面温度明显高于郊区,水体温度最低;随着城市规模的扩张,北京市的城市热岛效应有逐年增强 的趋势,且人为因素对城市热岛的贡献逐渐加大。

基于热红外影像数据的典型居住区常见地表类型热特征分析

城市热岛伴随城市建设产生,并随城市扩展而增强,已成为影响城市居民生活质量的重要因素。估算城市表面显热释放量对城市热环境研究具有现实意义。选取北京市典型居住小区,通过热红外成像仪记录了6种常见下垫面夏季一天中温度变化情况,并反演其显热释放量。结果显示白天人工地表表面温度显著高于气温,人造草坪、沥青和混凝土路面与气温最大温差分别为18、15、11℃。自然地表由于蒸散发作用,其表面温度与气温接近,仅草地与气温温差稍大,最大温差为4℃。不同地表类型表面温度在夜间均低于气温,只有沥青路面全天高于气温。高表面温度形成强烈的显热释放,人造草坪和沥青路面一天内显热释放量最高,达2256 W/m^2和1913 W/m^2。太阳辐射是人工地表迅速升温的主要原因,限制人工地表受太阳直射时间将对于降低显热排放及提高热舒适程度将具有显著效果。乔木和水体显热通量最低,只有16 W/m^2和7 W/m^2,增加乔木和水体面积对于缓解热岛强度具有很大优势。