Characteristics of Breccias and C-O-Sr-S Isotope Geochemistry of the Duocaima Pb-Zn Deposit in Tuotuohe, Qinghai Province: Implications for the Ore-forming Process

The Duocaima carbonate-hosted Pb-Zn deposit is a newly found large deposit in the southern area of Qinghai Province.In this paper, the characteristics, genesis, significance to Pb-Zn mineralization of the widely developed breccias, and the ore-forming process have been carefully studied based on geological documentation of drilling holes, microscopic observations of petrography and microstructure and some stable isotope measurements.Based on the compositions of the clast and matrix, the breccias can be classified into three types： limestone clasts cemented by marl; limestone clasts with fine-grained calcareous materials; and limestone clasts cemented by hydrothermal calcite.The mineralization in the first type of breccia is weak, whereas it is strong in the latter two types of breccias.According to the locations of occurrence and structural characteristics of the breccias along with the relationship between the breccias and mineralization, part of the limestone clasts that are cemented by marl and outcrop in the contact zone between the Wudaoliang Formation（Nw） and the underlying Jiushidaoban Formation（Pj） are attributed to synsedimentary fault-genetic breccia, whereas the last of the limestone clasts that are cemented by marl and developed in the Jiushidaoban Formation（Pj） are attributed to the breccia generated by karst cave collapse; the limestone clasts with fine-grained calcareous materials and the limestone clasts cemented by hydrothermal calcite are attributed to breccia formed by hydrothermal dissolution.The breccia formed by karst collapse had consistently evolved for a long period of time, while the breccias with other origins were formed around the period of mineralization（i.e., about or slightly later than 20–16 Ma）.The breccia generated by karst cave collapse and hydrothermal dissolution are somewhat related; the formation of the breccia from karst cave collapse provided open space for the later mineralization and reaction between hydrothermal fluids and host rocks, and the subsequent strong dissolution by hydrothermal fluids transformed some of the breccia formed earlier by karst cave collapse.Meanwhile, carbonate host rocks with breccias and brecciaed mineralization can be a potential sign of Mississippi Valley Type（MVT） deposits and important indicators for regional mineral exploration.The δ13CV-PDB, δ18OVSMOW, and 87Sr/86 Sr values of hydrothermal calcite in the Duocaima deposit range from 4.3‰ to 7.1‰, 14.9‰ to 20.1‰, and 0.707494 to 0.708185, respectively; the δ13CV-PDB, δ18OV-SMOW, and 87Sr/86 Sr values of the host limestones of the Jiushidaoban Formation range from 3.6‰ to 5.3‰, 18.0‰ to 20.5‰, and 0.707372 to 0.707945, respectively.The δ13CV-PDB and 87Sr/86 Sr values of hydrothermal calcite and limestone are similar, indicating single sources of C and Sr in this deposit, with the likely source being the limestone of the Jiushidaoban Formation.The minor scattering of the δ18OV-SMOW values suggests that different O isotope fluids underwent the isotope exchange reaction.The C-O-Sr isotope characteristics indicate that the host limestones experienced a dissolution and precipitation process during mineralization, which is beneficial to improving the porosity of host rocks and promoting the precipitation of metal sulfides.The δ34SV-CDT value of the breccia-type mineralization sulfides ranges from-30.4‰ to-0.3‰; that is, the δ34SV-CDT value is negative with considerable variation, illustrating that during the breccia-type mineralization process, the bacteriogenic reduction of sulfates provided the vast majority of sulfur, whereas the thermochemical reduction of sulfates was relatively unimportant.The brecciation that occurred as a result of karst cave collapse was mainly generated by the dissolution of groundwater; however, the brecciation related to hydrothermal dissolution and mineralization processes were caused by mixing of different fluids.

Geological Characteristics and Genesis of the Jiamoshan MVT Pb–Zn Deposit in the Sanjiang belt, Tibetan Plateau

The carbonate-hosted Pb–Zn deposits in the Sanjiang metallogenic belt on the Tibetan Plateau are typical of MVT Pb–Zn deposits that form in thrust-fold belts. The Jiamoshan Pb–Zn deposit is located in the Changdu area in the middle part of the Sanjiang belt, and it represents a new style of MVT deposit that was controlled by karst structures in a thrust–fold system. Such a karst-controlled MVT Pb–Zn deposit in thrust settings has not previously been described in detail, and we therefore mapped the geology of the deposit and undertook a detailed study of its genesis. The karst structures that host the Jiamoshan deposit were formed in Triassic limestones along secondary reverse faults, and the orebodies have irregular tubular shapes. The main sulfide minerals are galena, sphalerite, and pyrite that occur in massive and lamellar form. The ore-forming fluids belonged to a Mg2+–Na+–K+–SO2-4–Cl-–F-–NO-3–H2 O system at low temperatures(120–130°C) but with high salinities(19–22% NaCl eq.). We have recognized basinal brine as the source of the ore-forming fluids on the basis of their H–O isotopic compositions(-145‰ to-93‰ for δDV-SMOW and-2.22‰ to 13.00‰ for δ18 Ofluid), the ratios of Cl/Br(14–1196) and Na/Br(16–586) in the hydrothermal fluids, and the C–O isotopic compositions of calcite(-5.0‰ to 3.7‰ for δ13 CV-PDB and 15.1‰ to 22.3‰ for δ18 OV-SMOW). These fluids may have been derived from evaporated seawater trapped in marine strata at depth or from Paleogene–Neogene basins on the surface. The δ34 S values are low in the galena(-3.2‰ to 0.6‰) but high in the barite(27.1‰), indicating that the reduced sulfur came from gypsum in the regional Cenozoic basins and from sulfates in trapped paleo-seawater by bacterial sulfate reduction. The Pb isotopic compositions of the galena samples(18.3270–18.3482 for 206 Pb/204 Pb, 15.6345–15.6390 for 207 Pb/204 Pb, and 38.5503–38.5582 for 208 Pb/204 Pb) are similar to those of the regional Triassic volcanic-arc rocks that formed during the closure of the Paleo-Tethys, indicating these arc rocks were the source of the metals in the deposit. Taking into account our new observations and data, as well as regional Pb–Zn metallogenic processes, we present here a new model for MVT deposits controlled by karst structures in thrust–fold systems.