Risk Assessment of Vegetation Degradation Using Geographic Information System: A Case Study of Qareh Aghaj Basin,Iran

The entire land of Southern Iran faces problems arising out of various types of land degradation of which vegetation degradation forms one of the major types. The Qareh Aghaj basin（1 265 000 ha）,which covers the upper reaches of Mond River,has been chosen for a test risk assessment of this type. The different kinds of data for indicators of vegetation degradation were gathered from the records and published reports of the governmental offices of Iran. A new model has been developed for assessing the risk of vegetation degradation. Taking into consideration nine indicators of vegetation degradation the model identifies areas with ＂Potential Risk＂（risky zones） and areas of ＂Actual Risk＂ as well as projects the probability of the worse degradation in future. The preparation of risk maps based on the GIS analysis of these indicators will be helpful for prioritizing the areas to initiate remedial measures. By fixing the thresholds of severity classes of the nine indicators a hazard map for each indicator was first prepared in GIS. The risk classes were defined on the basis of risk scores arrived at by assigning the appropriate attributes to the indicators and the risk map was prepared by overlaying nine hazard maps in the GIS. Areas under actual risk have been found to be widespread（78%） in the basin and when the risk map classified into subclasses of potential risk with different probability levels the model projects a statistical picture of the risk of vegetation degradation.

Vegetation change in the Mt. Qomolangma Nature Reserve from 1981 to 2001

Based on the NOAA AVHRR-NDVI data from 1981 to 2001, the digitalized China Vegetation Map （1：1,000,000）, DEM, temperature and precipitation data, and field investigation, the spatial patterns and vertical characteristics of natural vegetation changes and their influencing factors in the Mt. Qomolangma Nature Reserve have been studied. The results show that： （1） There is remarkable spatial difference of natural vegetation changes in the Mt. Qomolangma Nature Reserve and stability is the most common status. There are 5.04% of the whole area being seriously degraded, 13.19% slightly degraded, 26.39% slightly improved, 0.97% significantly improved and 54.41% keeping stable. The seriously and slightly degraded areas, which mostly lie in the south of the reserve, are along the national boundaries. The areas of improved vegetation lie in the north of the reserve and the south side of the Yarlung Zangbo River. The stable areas lie between the improved and degraded areas. Degradation decreases with elevation. （2） Degeneration in the Mt. Qomolangma Nature Reserve mostly affects shrubs, needle-leaved forests and mixed forests. （3） The temperature change affects the natural vegetation changes spatially while the integration of temperature changes, slopes and aspects affects the natural vegetation change along the altitude gradients. （4） It is the overuse of resources that leads to the vegetation degeneration in some parts of the Mt. Qomolangma Nature Reserve.

Satellite dataset analysis of recent vegetation variation in Tibet region

This research investigates the recent distribution variation trends of vegetation in the Tibet region using Normalized Difference Vegetation Index （NDVI） data from 2000 to 2007. It also discusses the causes of vegetation degradation in typical regions （such as Nagqu） based on climatic conditions, human activity, and other influencing factors. Results show that the areas with the best vegetation cover are in Nyingchi and the southern part of Shannan, followed by Chamdo, the Lhasa area, and the eastern part of Nagqu. Vegetation in various regions exhibits significant seasonal differences. The vegetation status has improved in some parts of the Tibet region in the past few years, while the areas with the most serious degradation are in the middle and southem parts of the Nagqu region. On average, distinct vegetation degradation occurred between 2003 and 2006 in the whole Tibet region but vegetation has been increasing since 2006. The vegetation cover in summer basically determines the annual vegetation status. An increase in precipitation and decrease in wind speed generally corresponds to an increase in vegetation cover. The reverse is also true： a decrease in precipitation and increase in wind speed correspond to the decrease in vegetation cover. NDVI is thus positively related to temperature and precipitation but has a negative relation with wind speed. Increasing temperature and decreasing precipitation have led to the present vegetation degradation in Nagqu, and vegetation in all of these regions has been affected by growth of human population, intensified urbanization, livestock overgrazing leading to the proliferation of noxious plants, extraction of underground minerals and alluvial gold, extensive harvesting of traditional Chinese medicinal plants [e.g., Cordyceps sinensis, Caladium spp., and saffron crocus （Crocus sativus）], and serious rodent and other pest damage.

Study on the impact of vegetation degeneration to hydrology characteristic of the Alpine soil

Alpine soil infiltration process is an important part of the hydrological characteristics of alpine soil in permafrost. This research is carried out in the source region of the Yellow River where the permafrost is severely degraded, using various methods for choosing typical sample areas, and to experiment, study and simulate the soil water curve, soil saturated hydraulic conductivity, soil infiltration and soil moisture under different characteristics of degraded vegetation. The results indicate that the empirical equation θ=AS-B, proposed by Gradner and Visser, is very reliable in simulating the soil moisture curve; soil saturated hydraulic conductivity and soil infiltration are significantly different under different vegetation coverage： in the soil surface within 0-10 cm, the saturated hydraulic conductivity and infiltration intensity of Black Beach are the strongest; respectively, in soil layers below 30 cm, vegetation has almost no impacts on the saturated hydraulic conductivity, infiltration intensity and soil moisture content. Significant reduction of soil moisture occurs in soil surfaces with degraded vegetation. The more serious the degradation, the more water loss, and it can be up to 38.6% in the worst situation. Soil moisture of developed vegetation root systems in depths within 10-20 cm has the greatest impact on the soil environment, and the loss of moisture induces difficulty in the restoration of degraded meadows. Through a comparative study, the Kostiakov infiltration equationf（t） = at-b is more applicable for studies on the process of soil moisture infiltration of the alpine meadow in the source region of the Yellow River.

Precipitation and anthropogenic activities regulate the changes of NDVI in Zhegucuo Valley on the southern Tibetan Plateau

Whether climate change or anthropogenic activities play a more pivotal role in regulating vegetation growth on the Tibetan Plateau is still controversial.A better understanding on grassland changes at a fine scale may provide important guidance for local government policy and grassland management.Using two of the most reliable satellite NDVI products(MODIS NDVI and SPOT NDVI),we evaluated the dynamic of grasslands in the Zhegucuo valley on the southern Tibetan Plateau from 2000 to 2020,and analyzed its driving factors and relative influences of climate change and anthropogenic activities.Here,the key indicators of climate change were assumed to be precipitation and temperature.The main results were:(1)the grassland NDVI in Zhegucuo valley did not reflect a significant temporal change during the last 21 years.The variation of precipitation during the early growing season(GSP)resembled that of NDVI,and the GSP was positively correlated with NDVI.At the pixel level,the partial correlation analysis showed that 37.79%of the pixels depicted a positive relationship between GSP and NDVI,while 11.32%of the pixels showed a negative relationship between temperature during the early growing season(GST)and NDVI.(2)In view of the spatial distribution,the areas mainly controlled by GSP were generally distributed in the southern part,while those affected by GST stood in the eastern part,mainly around the Zhegucuo lake where most population in Cuomei County settled down.(3)Decreasing NDVI trends were mainly occurred in alpine steppe at lower elevations rather than alpine meadow at higher elevations.(4)The residual trend(RESTREND)analysis further indicated that the anthropogenic activities played a more pivotal role in regulating the annual changes of NDVI rather than climate factors in this area.Future studies should pay more attention on climate extremes rather than the simple temporal trends.Also,the influence of human activities on alpine grassland needs to be accessed and fully considered in future sustainable management.

Degradation of the Vegetation Cover in Central Mongolia: A Case Study

Two model polygons in the Central Mongolia are considered for investigation of vegetation dynamics. They are located in rainless climatic zones -- arid and semiarid. For the emphasized polygons plots of the NDVI temporal variation and NDVI maps of its multi-temporal values on the base of Landsat TM imagery are constructed. The full-scale landscape indication of the selected NDVI areas with different values with the step through 0.1 is conducted. This indication is supported by the analysis of vegetation to environmental groups for drought resistance. Almost the entire territory of the emphasized polygons vegetation digression during this period was traced. The analysis of the time variation of NDVI shows a decrease of its values. This indicates a trend xerophytization already sparse vegetation of Gobi. In the semiarid climatic zone a digression vegetation trend is directly related to heavy load on the pastures.

Satellite-based Studies on Large-Scale Vegetation Changes in China

Remotely-sensed vegetation indices, which indicate the density and photosynthetic capacity of vegetation, have been widely used to monitor vegetation dynamics over broad areas. In this paper, we reviewed satellite-based studies on vegetation cover changes, biomass and productivity variations, phenological dynamics, desertification, and grassland degradation in China that occurred over the past 2-3 decades. Our review shows that the satellite-derived index （Normalized Difference Vegetation Index, NDVI） during growing season and the vegetation net primary productivity in major terrestrial ecosystems （for example forests, grasslands, shrubs, and croplands） have significantly increased, while the number of fresh lakes and vegetation coverage in urban regions have experienced a substantial decline. The start of the growing season continually advanced in China＇s temperate regions until the 1990s, with a large spatial heterogeneity. We also found that the coverage of sparsely-vegetated areas declined, and the NDVI per unit in vegetated areas increased in arid and semi-arid regions because of increased vegetation activity in grassland and oasis areas. However, these results depend strongly not only on the periods chosen for investigation, but also on factors such as data sources, changes in detection methods, and geospatial heterogeneity. Therefore, we should be cautious when applying remote sensing techniques to monitor vegetation structures, functions, and changes.

Relationships between soil seed banks and above-ground vegetation along a disturbance gradient in the W National Park trans-boundary biosphere reserve,West Africa

Aims Vegetation succession depends on the availability of suitable prop-agules in the soils,thus knowledge of soil seed banks is essential for formulating effective strategies for restoring the vegetation of degraded sites.The W National Park,the only trans-boundary bio-sphere reserve in West Africa,is being extensively fragmented and degraded in recent decades.The aims of this study were to assess the reserve’s soil seed banks,their relationships with standing veg-etation and bundle of disturbances and their potential significance for vegetation restoration.Methods The size and composition of the above-ground species vegetation were assessed in nine plots of 1 ha each representing a range of habitats with differing disturbance severity(low,intermediate and high).A total of 702 soil samples were taken from three layers(0-3,3-6 and 6-9 cm)and soil seed bank was analyzed using the seed-ling emergence technique.Important Findings Generally,seeds of non-woody taxa dominated in samples from all soil depths and habitats of all disturbance severities.The mean soil seed density was 17.8,24.4 and 26.3 seeds/dm^(3) in samples from the least,intermediate and most disturbed sites,respectively,and highest in the upper soil layers in all cases.The results indi-cate that there is limited potential for restoring woody vegetation solely from soil seed banks,and that woody species in the region rely more on recently shed seeds trapped in the standing dead biomass and litter on the ground than soil seed banks for regen-eration.Thus,human intervention is needed to accelerate forest recovery,mainly through alleviating anthropogenic impacts on the ecosystem(for instance,avoiding destruction of new seeds by intense fire),and site manipulation to improve environmen-tal conditions for seedling establishment and growth.Other ways of restoring forests than through the soil seed bank(e.g.sowing seeds collected elsewhere,and planting tree seedlings)could also be relevant.

Kinetics of nitrobenzene degradation coupled to indigenous microorganism dissimilatory iron reduction stimulated by emulsified vegetable oil

Widespread contamination by nitrobenzene（NB） in sediments and groundwater requires better understanding of the biogeochemical removal process of the pollutant. NB degradation, coupled with dissimilatory iron reduction, is one of the most efficient pollutant removal methods. However, research on NB degradation coupled to indigenous microorganism dissimilatory iron reduction stimulated by electron donors is still experimental. A model for remediation in an actual polluted site does not currently exist.Therefore, in this study, the dynamics was derived from the Michaelis–Menten model（when the mass ratio of emulsified vegetable oil and NB reached the critical value 91：1）. The effect of SO4^（2-）, NO3^-, Ca^（2＋）/Mg^（2＋）, and the grain size of aquifer media on the dynamics were studied, and the NB degradation dynamic model was then modified based on the most significant factors. Utilizing the model, the remediation time could be calculated in a contaminated site.