For more and purer hydrogen-the progress and challenges in water gas shift reaction

The water gas shift(WGS) reaction is a standard reaction that is widely used in industrial hydrogen production and removal of carbon monoxide. The improved catalytic performance of WGS reaction also contributes to ammonia synthesis and other reactions. Advanced catalysts have been developed for both high and low-temperature reactions and are widely used in industry. In recent years, supported metal nanoparticle catalysts have been researched due to their high metal utilization. Low-temperature catalysts have shown promising results, including high selectivity, high shift rates, and higher activity potential. Additionally, significant progress has been made in removing trace CO through the redox reaction in electrolytic cell. This paper reviews the development of WGS reaction catalysts, including the reaction mechanism, catalyst design, and innovative research methods. The catalyst plays a crucial role in the WGS reaction, and this paper provides an instant of catalyst design under different conditions. The progress of catalysts is closely related to the development of advanced characterization techniques.Furthermore, modifying the catalyst surface to enhance activity and significantly increase reaction kinetics is a current research direction. This review goals to stimulate a better understanding of catalyst design, performance optimization, and driving mechanisms, leading to further progress in this field.

Reverse water gas shift reaction over Co-precipitated Ni-CeO_2 catalysts

The Ni-CeO2 catalysts with different Ni contents were prepared by a co-precipitation method and used for Reverse Water Gas Shift （RWGS） reaction. 2wt.%Ni-CeO2 showed excellent catalytic performance in terms of activity, selectivity, and stability for RWGS reaction. Characterizations of the catalyst samples were conducted by XRD and TPR. The results indicated that, in Ni-CeO2 catalysts, there were three kinds of nickel, nickel ions in ceria lattice, highly dispersed NiO and bulk NiO. Oxygen vacancies were formed in CeO2 lattice due to the incorporation of Ni^2＋ ions into ceria lattice. Oxygen vacancies formed in ceria lattice and highly dispersed Ni were key active components for RWGS, and bulk Ni was key active component for methanation of CO2.

A Novel γ-Alumina Supported Fe-Mo Bimetallic Catalyst for Reverse Water Gas Shift Reaction

In reverse water gas shift （RWGS） reaction COa is converted to CO which in turn can be used to pro- duce beneficial chemicals such as methanol. In the present study, Mo/AlaO3, Fe/AlaO3 and Fe-Mo/Al2O3 catalysts were synthesised using impregnation method. The structures of catalysts were studied using X-ray diffraction （XRD）, Brunauer-Emmett-Teller （BET） method, inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometer （ICP-AES）, temperature programmed reduction （H2-TPR）, CO chemisorption, energy dispersive X-ray （EDX） and scanning electron microscopy （SEM） techniques. Kinetic properties of all catalysts were investigated in a batch re- actor for RWGS reaction. The results indicated that Mo existence in structure of Fe-Mo/AlzO3 catalyst enhances its activity as compared to Fe/AlaO3. This enhancement is probably due to better Fe dispersion and smaller particle size of Fe species. Stability test of Fe-Mo/AlzO3 catalyst was carried out in a fixed bed reactor and a high CO yield for 60 h of time on stream was demonstrated. Fez（MoO4）3 phase was found in the structures of fresh and used catalysts. TPR results also indicate that Fez（MoO4）3 phase has low reducibility, therefore the Fe2（MoO4）3 phase significantly inhibits the reduction of the remaining Fe oxides in the catalyst, resulted in high stability of Fe-Mo/Al2O3 catalyst. Overall, this study introduces Fe-Mo/Al2O3 as a novel catalyst with high CO yield, almost no by-products and fairly stable for RWGS reaction.

Boosting the water gas shift reaction on Pt/CeO_(2)-based nanocatalysts by compositional modification: Support doping versus bimetallic alloying

The water gas shift reaction is of vital significance for the generation and transition of energy due to the application in hydrogen production and industries such as ammonia synthesis and fuel cells.The influence of support doping and bimetallic alloying on the catalytic performance of Pt/Ce O_(2)-based nanocatalysts in water gas shift reaction was reported in this work.Various lanthanide ions and 3d transition metals were respectively introduced into the Ce O_(2)support or Pt to form Pt/Ce O_(2):Ln(Ln=La,Nd,Gd,Tb,Yb)and Pt M/Ce O_(2)(M=Fe,Co,Ni)nanocatalysts.The sample of Pt/Ce O_(2):Tb showed the highest activity(TOF at 200℃=0.051 s^(-1))among the Pt/Ce O_(2):Ln and the undoped Pt/Ce O_(2)catalysts.Besides,the sample of Pt Fe/Ce O_(2)exhibited the highest activity(TOF at 200℃=0.12 s^(-1))among Pt M/Ce O_(2)catalysts.The results of the multiple characterizations indicated that the catalytic activity of Pt/Ce O_(2):Ln catalysts was closely correlated with the amount of oxygen vacancies in doped ceria support.However,the different activity of Pt M/Ce O_(2)bimetallic catalysts was owing to the various Pt oxidation states of the bimetals dispersed on ceria.The study of the reaction pathway indicated that both the samples of Pt/Ce O_(2)and Pt/Ce O_(2):Tb catalyzed the reaction through the formate pathway,and the enhanced activity of the latter derived from the increased concentration of oxygen vacancies along with promoted water dissociation.As for the sample of Pt Fe/Ce O_(2),its catalytic mechanism was the carboxyl route with a higher reaction rate due to the moderate valence of Pt along with improved CO activation.

Selective synthesis of carbon monoxide via formates in reverse water–gas shift reaction over alumina-supported gold catalyst

Thermal decomposition of formic acid on SiO2, CeO2 and γ-Al2O3 was studied as an elementary step of reverse water–gas shit reaction（RWGS） over supported Au catalysts. γ-Al2O3 showed the highest CO selectivity among the tested oxides in the decomposition of formic acid. Infrared spectroscopy showed the formation of four formate species on γ-Al2O3： three η~1-type and one μ~2-type species, and these formates decomposed to CO at 473 K or higher. Au-loaded γ-Al2O3 samples were prepared by a depositionprecipitation method and used as catalysts for RWGS. The supported Au catalyst gave CO with high selectivity over 99% from CO2 and H2, which is attributed to the formation of formates on Au and subsequent decomposition to CO on γ-Al2O3.

Computational Screening of Pt1@Ti_(3)C_(2)T_(2)(T=O,S)MXene Catalysts for Water-Gas Shift Reaction

Single-atom catalysts(SACs)provide an oppor-tunity to elucidate the catalytic mechanism of complex reactions in heterogeneous catalysis.The low-temperature water-gas shift(WGS)reaction is an important industrial technology to obtain high purity hydrogen.Herein,we study the catalytic activity of Pt1@Ti_(3)C_(2)T_(2)(T=O,S)SACs,where one subsurface Ti atom with three T vacancies in the functionalized Ti_(3)C_(2)T_(2)(T=O,S)MXene is substituted by one Pt atom,for the low-temperature show that Pt1@Ti_(3)C_(2)T_(2)provides an excellent platform for the WGS reaction by its bowl-shaped vacancy derived from the Pt1 single atom and three T defects surrounding it.Especially,Pt1@Ti_(3)C_(2)S_(2)SAC has higher catalytic performance for the WGS reaction,due to the weaker electronegativity of the S atom than the O atom,which significantly reduces the energy barrier of H*migration in the WGS reaction,which is often the rate-determining step.In the most favorable redox mechanism of the WGS reaction on Pt1@Ti_(3)C_(2)S_(2),the rate-determining step is the dissociation of OH*into O*and H*with the energy barrier as low as 1.12 eV.These results demonstrate that Pt1@Ti_(3)C_(2)S_(2)is promising in the application of MXenes for low-temperature WGS reactions.

Model for Reduction of Iron Oxide Pellet with a C-O-H-N Gas Mixture Considering Water Gas Shift Equilibrium in the Gas While It Diffuses through the Product Layer

In metallurgical processes, more and more usage of hydrocarbons is encouraged to bring down the carbon emissions. In this regard, numerous investigations on reduction of oxides by C-O-H-N gas mixture have been reported. Attempts to simulate these reduction processes using shrinking core model, one of the common models used for such studies, have under predicted the reduction rates. This may be owing to the fact that the homogeneous reaction in the gas phase is not being considered. If the reaction temperatures are above 1,000 K, generally so for many reduction processes, the homogeneous gas reaction rates are expected to be high enough that local equilibrium in the gas phase can be assumed. In the present study, reduction of wustite in a C-O-H-N gas mixture has been modeled using shrinking core model considering the water gas shift equilibrium in the gas while it diffuses through the product layer.

Influence of Reaction Conditions on Methanol Synthesis and WGS Reaction in the Syngas-to-DME Process

A series of CuO-ZnO catalysts （with different Cu/Zn molar ratios） were prepared, and evaluated under the reaction conditions of syngas-to-dimethyl ether （DME） with three sorts of feed gas and different space velocity. The catalysts were characterized by X-ray diffraction （XRD） and temperatureprogrammed reduction （TPR）. The experiment results showed that the reaction conditions of syngas-to- DME process greatly affected the methanol synthesis and WGS reaction. The influence caused by Cu/Zn molar ratio was quite different on the two reactions; increasing of percentage of CO2 in feed gas was unfavorable for catalyst activity, and also inhibited both reactions; enhancement of reaction space velocity heavily influenced the performance of the catalyst, and the benefits were relatively less for methanol synthesis than for the WGS reaction.

Effect of Addition Sequence during Neutralization and Precipitation on Iron-based Catalysts for High Temperature Shift Reaction

The preparation of the iron-based catalysts promoted by cobalt with a small amount of copper and aluminum for the high temperature shift reaction （HTS） with different sequences of adding catalyst raw materials during neutralization and precipitation was investigated. XRD, BET and particle size distribution （PSD） were used to characterize the prepared catalysts. It was found that the catalyst crystals were all γ-Fe2O3, and the intermediate of the catalyst after aging was Fe3O4. The crystallographic form of the catalyst and its intermediate was not affected by the addition sequence in the neutralization and precipitation process. The results showed that the specific surface area and the particle size of the catalysts depended on the addition sequence to the mother liquor. Cobalt with a small amount of copper and aluminum could increase the specific surface area and decrease the particle size of catalysts.

Adsorption Properties of Water Vapor on Iron Oxide Containing Cerium Oxide

The properties of adsorption of water vapor on iron oxide containing CeO 2 have been studied by pulse gas chromatography(GC) with the method of retention volume It was found that the adsorption heat of water vapor on the catalyst decreased and the number of adsorption centers did not change as the amount of cerium oxide increasing in the samples However, the adsorption heat increased somewhat as the sample contains enough amount of cerium oxide The activities of the samples catalyzing the water gas shift(WGS) reaction were measured The results showed that the lower the adsorption heat of a sample was, the higher its activity became It was proved that cerium oxide was a catalyst accelerator in the WGS catalysis

NiCe bimetallic nanoparticles embedded in hexagonal mesoporous silica (HMS) for reverse water gas shift reaction

Reverse water gas shift(RWGS)reaction is a crucial process in CO_(2)utilization.Herein,Ni-and NiCe-containing hexagonal mesoporous silica(Ni-HMS and NiCe-HMS)catalysts were synthesized using an insitu one-pot method and applied for RWGS reaction.At certain reaction temperatures 500-750℃,Ni-HMS samples displayed a higher selectivity to the preferable CO than that of conventionally impregnated Ni/HMS catalyst.This could be originated from the smaller NiO nanoparticles over Ni-HMS catalyst.NiCe-HMS exhibited higher activity compared to Ni-HMS.The catalysts were characterized by means of TEM,XPS,XRD,H_(2)-TPR,CO_(2)-TPD,EPR and N_(2) adsorption-desortion technology.It was found that introduction of Ce created high concentration of oxygen vacancies,served as the active site for activating CO_(2).Also,this work analyzed the effect of the H_(2)/CO_(2)molar ratio on the best NiCe-HMS.When reaction gas H_(2)/CO_(2)molar ratio was 4 significantly decreased the selectivity to CO at low temperature,but triggered a higher CO_(2)conversion which is close to the equilibrium.

Catalytic performance of Co-Mo-Ce-K/γ-Al_(2)O_(3) catalyst for the shift reaction of CO in coke oven gas

The catalytic performance of Co-Mo-Ce-K/γAl_(2)O_(3) catalyst for the shift reaction of CO in coke oven gas is investigated using X-ray diffraction(XRD)and temperature-programmed reduction(TPR).The results indicate that Ce and K have a synergistic effect on promoting the catalytic activity,and the Co-Mo-Ce-K/γAl_(2)O_(3) catalyst with 3.0 wt-%CeO2 and 6.0 wt-%K_(2)O exhibits the highest activity.CeO2 favors Co dispersion and mainly produces an electronic effect.TPR characterization results indicate that the addition of CeO2-K_(2)O in the Co-Mo-Ce-K/γ-Al_(2)O_(3) catalyst decreases the reduction temperature of active components,and part of octahedrally coordinated Mo6+transforms into tetrahedrally coordinated Mo6+,which has a close relationship with the catalytic activity.

The highly selective catalytic hydrogenation of CO_(2)to CO over transition metal nitrides

Three transition metal-like facet centered cubic structured transition metal nitrides,γ-Mo_(2)N,β-W_(2)N andδ-NbN,are synthesized and applied in the reaction of CO_(2)hydrogenation to CO.Among the three nitride catalysts,theγ-Mo_(2)N exhibits superior activity to target product CO,which is 4.6 and 76 times higher than the other two counterparts ofβ-W_(2)N andδ-NbN at 600℃,respectively.Additionally,γ-Mo_(2)N exhibits excellent stability on both cyclic heating-cooling and high space velocity steady state operation.The deactivation degree of cyclic heating-cooling evaluation after 5 cycles and long-term stability performance at 773 and 873 K in 50 h are all less than 10%.In-situ XRD and kinetic studies suggest that theγ-Mo_(2)N itself is able to activate both of the reactants CO_(2)and H_(2).Below 400℃,the reaction mainly occurs at the surface ofγ-Mo_(2)N catalyst.CO_(2)and H_(2)competitively adsorbe on the surface of catalyst and CO_(2)is the relatively stronger surface adsorbate.At a higher temperature,the interstitial vacancies of theγ-Mo_(2)N can be reversibly filled with the oxygen from CO_(2)dissociation.Both of the surface and bulk phase sites ofγ-Mo_(2)N participate in the high temperature CO_(2)hydrogenation pathway.

A Lamellar Ceria Structure with Encapsulated Platinum Nanoparticles

A novel lamellar feather-like CeO_(2) structure has been fabricated by using a triblock copolymer as the structure-directing agent.This material was characterized in detail by X-ray diffraction,scanning electron microscopy,transmission electron microscopy,X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy,and BET surface area measurements.Compared with conventional spherical shaped ceria prepared by ammonia gelation,the ceria feathers have superior ability to support nanosized platinum particles due to their special structure.The“skeletons”of ceria feathers can serve as an ideal host matrix to anchor the platinum particles.Furthermore,the inter-crossing pattern of the“skeletons”also acts as a partition to separate platinum particles,allowing the Pt nanoparticles(average diameter~6 nm)to be highly dispersed in the structure.The Pt/feather-like CeO_(2) catalyst exhibits high activity in the water gas shift reaction.