Characteristics and Functions of Cooperative Economic Organizations for Water-saving Irrigation in Agricultural Development in Arid Areas

Agricultural cooperative economic organization for water-saving irrigation in arid areas is a new form of economic organization in production,operation and management during the application process of water-saving irrigation technologies.Currently,there are few researches on this cooperative economic organization.In this study,connotations of cooperative economic organizations for water-saving irrigation are specifically defined,and the characteristics and functions of this cooperative economic organization are analyzed.Based on that,several suggestions are proposed on the continuous development of cooperative economic organizations for water-saving irrigation.

Application of Automatic Water-saving Irrigation System in Roof Gardens

Based on the special site conditions of roof gardens,it was put forward to introduce automatic water-saving irrigation system into the roof garden constructions,such as the solar energy and microcomputer auto water-saving irrigation system,aiming to solve the photosynthetic noon break phenomenon of plants and relieve the stress from high temperature.

Design and Construction of Rainwater Harvesting and Water-saving Irrigation System of Toona sinensis on Mountain Slopes

In order to collect rainwater and resist drought to enhance the utilization rate of rainfall and water resources, through project rainwater harvesting measures, the total annual rainwater harvesting amount of the six greenhouses was calculated according to annual average precipitation 542.2 mm, up to 1 095.7 m^3. The upper natural slopes of cultivated land were as rainwater harvesting areas, and total annual rainwater harvesting amount was 49 242 m^3 on the mountain slopes with an area of 73.37 hm^2, while total water storage amount was 39 394 m^3 in theory, so it could meet water use for the irrigation of 26.28 hm^2 of T. sinensis land. To be convenient for rainwater harvesting, irrigation and supplying water to the water-saving cellars, one pert-cut and part-fill reservoir （which was 470 m^3 in volume） was built on the mountain slopes at the right rear of the greenhouses, and their altitude difference was 50 m. The reservoir was sealed and was built with reinforced concrete. Water-saving cellars were distributed in front and the middle and at the back of two rows of greenhouses, and they were connected with each other. The reservoir could supply water to the water-saving cellars and also collect water by mountain slopes, from the lower water-saving cellars or deep wells. Two rainwater hervesting ditches that were 1 650 m in length were at the lower edge of arable land in the upper reaches of slopes to intercept rainfall runoff and make it flow into channels and then the sedimentation tanks. The total annual rainwater harvesting amount of the reservoir and water-saving cellars was 1 222.5 m^3.

The water-saving potential of using micro-sprinkling irrigation for winter wheat production on the North China Plain

The shortage of groundwater resources is a considerable challenge for winter wheat production on the North China Plain.Water-saving technologies and procedures are thus urgently required.To determine the water-saving potential of using micro-sprinkling irrigation(MSI)for winter wheat production,field experiments were conducted from 2012 to 2015.Compared to traditional flooding irrigation(TFI),micro-sprinkling thrice with 90 mm water(MSI1)and micro-sprinkling four times with 120 mm water(MSI2)increased the water use efficiency by 22.5 and 16.2%,respectively,while reducing evapotranspiration by 17.6 and 10.8%.Regardless of the rainfall pattern,MSI(i.e.,MSI1 or MSI2)either stabilized or significantly increased the grain yield,while reducing irrigation water volumes by 20–40%,compared to TFI.Applying the same volumes of irrigation water,MSI(i.e.,MSI3,micro-sprinkling five times with 150 mm water)increased the grain yield and water use efficiency of winter wheat by 4.6 and 11.7%,respectively,compared to TFI.Because MSI could supply irrigation water more frequently in smaller amounts each time,it reduced soil layer compaction,and may have also resulted in a soil water deficit that promoted the spread of roots into the deep soil layer,which is beneficial to photosynthetic production in the critical period.In conclusion,MSI1 or MSI2 either stabilized or significantly increased grain yield while reducing irrigation water volumes by 20–40%compared to TFI,and should provide water-saving technological support in winter wheat production for smallholders on the North China Plain.

The Potential Contribution of Subsurface Drip Irrigation to Water-Saving Agriculture in the Western USA

Water shortages within the western USA are resulting in the adoption of water-saving agricultural practices within this region. Among the many possible methods for saving water in agriculture, the adoption of subsurface drip irrigation （SDI） provides a potential solution to the problem of low water use efficiency. Other advantages of SDI include reduced NO3 leaching compared to surface irrigation, higher yields, a dry soil surface for improved weed control, better crop health, and harvest flexibility for many specialty crops. The use of SDI also allows the virtual elimination of crop water stress, the ability to apply water and nutrients to the most active part of the root zone, protection of drip lines from damage due to cultivation and tillage, and the ability to irrigate with wastewater while preventing human contact. Yet, SDI is used only on a minority of cropland in the arid western USA. Reasons for the limited adoption of SDI include the high initial capital investment required, the need for intensive management, and the urbanization that is rapidly consuming farmland in parts of the western USA. The contributions of SDI to increasing yield, quality, and water use efficiency have been demonstrated. The two major barriers to SDI sustainability in arid regions are economics （i.e., paying for the SDI system）, including the high cost of installation; and salt accumulation, which requires periodic leaching, specialized tillage methods, or transplanting of seedlings rather than direct-seeding. We will review advances in irrigation management with SDI.

Development Potentials and Benefit Analysis of Efficient Water-saving Irrigation in Lixin County

On the basis of analyzing water resources,crop planning structure,and irrigation mode in Lixin County,potentials and benefits of developing efficient water-saving irrigation in the county were explored to provide references for its future water-saving irrigation.

Cotton's Water Demand and Water-Saving Benefits under Drip Irrigation with Plastic Film Mulch

The primary purpose of this research was to give suitable irrigation program according to the growth period and water requirement.A cotton field experiment with mulched drip irrigation was conducted at the National Field Observation and Research Station for Oasis Farmland Ecosystem in Aksu of Xinjiang in 2008.Water balance method was adopted to study the water requirement and water consumption law of cotton under mulched drip irrigation in Tarim Irrigated Area.Statistical analysis of experimental data of irrigation indicates that the relationship between yield of cotton and irrigation presents a quadratic parabola.We fit the model of cotton water production on the basis of field experimental data of cotton.And the analysis on water saving benefit of cotton under mulched drip irrigation was done.Results indicate that water requirements for the irrigated cotton are 543 mm in Tarim Irrigated Area.The water requirements of seedling stage is 252 mm,budding stage is 186 mm,bolling stage is 316 mm and wadding stage is 139 mm.the irrigation amount determines the spatial distribution of soil moisture and water consumption during cotton life cycle.However,water consumption at different growth stages was inconsistent with irrigation.Quantitatively,the water consumed by cotton decreases upon the increase of irrigation amount.From the perspective of water saving,the maximal water use efficiency can reach 3 091 m3/ha.But the highest cotton yield needs 3464 m3/ha irrigation water.In summary,compared to the conventional drip irrigation,a number of benefits in water saving and yield increase were observed when using plastic mulch.At the same amount of irrigation,the cotton yield with plastic mulch was 30.2% higher than conventional approaches,and the efficiency of water utilization increased by30.2%.While at the same yield level,29.3% water was saved by using plastic mulch,and the efficiency increased by 41.5%.

Effect of Recharge and Irrigation on the Variation of Nitrate in the Groundwater of Wadi Djendjen (Jijel—North-East Algeria)

This paper presents the effect of recharge and irrigation on the variation of nitrate in the groundwater of wadi Djendjen (Jijel—North-East Algeria) where the intensive use of fertilizers and the recycling of irrigation water have resulted in an alarming increase in nitrate concentrations. In this plain, the groundwater is increasingly polluted by excessive use of fertilizers in agriculture. Indeed, in several areas of irrigated vegetable crops, water contains nitrate levels which exceed the allowed standards for human consumption. The present study consists of a spatio-temporal monitoring of nitrate in groundwater in relation to the dilution caused when charging during the rainy season, on the one hand, and to the leaching by irrigation water during the dry season, on the other hand. The results obtained show an increase in the contamination of groundwater by nitrates and their seasonal variations under the effects of recharge and irrigation.

Study on the Suitable Water-Saving Irrigation Technology for Mining Areas in the Northwestern Arid Desert Regions in China

Water is the key factor to ensure plant survival in the process of ecological restoration in the coal base of China northwest deserts. On the premise of meeting the mine production and living water demands, we should take measures such as dirt wastewater treatment and water-saving irrigation to increase income and reduce expenditure and allocate limited water re-sources rationally, to provide mining area ecological restoration maximum usable water resources. The mining dump has large slope and thin soil layer and it is easy to produce surface runoff. So it is particularly important to study the irrigation technology needed to satisfy vegetation restoration, on the premise of guaranteeing not to produce surface runoff and the slope stability. In this paper, through field plot test, the suitable irrigation method for mine slope, slope surface soil moisture migration characteristics and slope stability analysis were studied. Results show that three slope ir-rigation technologies have their own advantages and disadvantages. On the whole, the effect of drip irrigation is the best, micro spray irrigation is the second, infiltrating irrigation is not ideal. The permeability of mine soil slope is very strong, the infiltration rate of the slope direction is the high-est, inverse slope infiltration rate is lowest. In the process of irrigation, with the increase of soil moisture content, slope safety factor is the decreased obviously, the whole slope surface soil moisture content is 14% for the slope stability safety threshold.

Two-way coupling of unsaturated-saturated flow by integrating the SWAT and MODFLOW models with application in an irrigation district in arid region of West China

This paper presents the realization of two-way coupling of the unsaturated-saturated flow interactions of the SWAT2000 and MODFLOW96 models on the basis of the integrated surface/groundwater model SWATMOD99, and its application in Hetao Irrigation District （HID）, Inner Mongolia, China. Major revisions and enhancements were made to the SWAT2000 and MODFLOW models for simulating the detailed hydrologic budget and coupled unsaturated and saturated interactions, and irrigation canal hydrology for the HID. The simulation results of seasonal groundwater recharge to and evaporate from the shallow groundwater, and the annual water budget over the district are presented and discussed. The results implied the necessity of two-way coupling of the unsaturated-saturated interactions when groundwater is shallow, and the feasibility of making comprehensive use of the information coming from both the surface water and groundwater models to make a more physically-based assessment of the coupled interactions.

What determines irrigation efficiency when farmers face extreme weather events? A field survey of the major wheat producing regions in China

Water availability is a major constraint on grain production in China, therefore, improving irrigation efficiency is particularly important when agriculture faces extreme weather events. This paper first calculates irrigation efficiency with a translog stochastic frontier production function and then investigates what happens when extreme weather events occur via a Tobit model. The estimated results reveal several important features of irrigation practices: i) irrigation efficiency is lower when extreme weather events occur; ii) large variations in irrigation efficiency occur across irrigation facilities; iii) the farm plots exhibit an extreme distribution across efficiency levels; and iv) water-saving techniques, technology adoption, and the maintenance of farmers’ economic resilience are major determinants of irrigation efficiency. Based on these results we propose the following recommendations: i) farmers should balance crop yield and water use; undertake relevant training programs and adopt water-saving techniques; ii) local governments and researchers should help farmers to find the optimal level of irrigation water use based on their own circumstances and provide better water-saving techniques and training programs rather than simply encouraging farmers to invest in irrigation facilities in the most extreme weather years; and iii) the income level of farm households should be increased so as to improve their resilience to natural disasters.

Non-negligible factors in low-pressure sprinkler irrigation:droplet impact angle and shear stress

Droplet shear stress is considered as an important indicator that reflects soil erosion in sprinkler irrigation more accurately than kinetic energy,and the effect of droplet impact angle on the shear stress cannot be ignored.In this study,radial distribution of droplet impact angles,velocities,and shear stresses were investigated using a two-dimensional video disdrometer with three types of low-pressure sprinkler(Nelson D3000,R3000,and Komet KPT)under two operating pressures(103 and 138 kPa)and three nozzle diameters(3.97,5.95,and 7.94 mm).Furthermore,the relationships among these characteristical parameters of droplet were analyzed,and their influencing factors were comprehensively evaluated.For various types of sprinkler,operating pressures,and nozzle diameters,the smaller impact angles and larger velocities of droplets were found to occur closer to the sprinkler,resulting in relatively low droplet shear stresses.The increase in distance from the sprinkler caused the droplet impact angle to decrease and velocity to increase,which contributed to a significant increase in the shear stress that reached the peak value at the end of the jet.Therefore,the end of the jet was the most prone to soil erosion in the radial direction,and the soil erosion in sprinkler irrigation could not only be attributed to the droplet kinetic energy,but also needed to be combined with the analysis of its shear stress.Through comparing the radial distributions of average droplet shear stresses among the three types of sprinklers,D3000 exhibited the largest value(26.94-3313.51 N/m^(2)),followed by R3000(33.34-2650.80 N/m^(2)),and KPT(16.15-2485.69 N/m^(2)).From the perspective of minimizing the risk of soil erosion,KPT sprinkler was more suitable for low-pressure sprinkler irrigation than D3000 and R3000 sprinklers.In addition to selecting the appropriate sprinkler type to reduce the droplet shear stress,a suitable sprinkler spacing could also provide acceptable results,because the distance from the sprinkler exhibited a highly significant(P<0.01)effect on the shear stress.This study results provide a new reference for the design of low-pressure sprinkler irrigation system.

Efficient Water-Saving Irrigation,Space Efficiency and Agricultural Development——Study Based on Spatial Stochastic Frontier Model

Xinjiang's agriculture is a typical irrigated agriculture for its agriculture water consumption accounts for 96%of the total water use.As a typical resource-deficient area,the key to Xinjiang's agricultural development is saving water.This paper takes the high-efficient water-saving irrigation technology of 41 regions along the Tarim River from 2002 to 2013 as the research object,adopts spatial stochastic frontier model to measure the space efficiency of high-efficient water-saving irrigation technology,and analyzes the effect of water-saving irrigation technology on agricultural development.Results show that the water-saving irrigation technology has a spatial effect,if neglecting it,the error of missing variables will occur,and the average loss will be 6.98 percentage points.The spatial correlation effect promotes the improvement of the efficiency of water-saving irrigation technology.The spatial heterogeneity leads to the spatial imbalance of the efficiency of water-saving irrigation technology.The promotion of agricultural water-saving irrigation technology can increase production and the efficiency of agricultural development.Due to the technical heterogeneity of different types of water-saving irrigation technology,the contribution to the development of agriculture is also different.The study finds that water-saving irrigation technology of drip irrigation in the Tarim River contributes more to agricultural development.

Optimizing water-saving irrigation schemes for rice(Oryza sativa L.)using DSSAT-CERES-Rice model

Rice is one of the major crops in China,and enhancing the rice yield and water use efficiency is critical to ensuring food security in China.Determining how to optimize a scientific and efficient irrigation and drainage scheme by combining existing technology is currently a hot topic.Crop growth models can be used to assess actual or proposed water management regimes intended to increase water use efficiency and mitigate water shortages.In this study,a CERES-Rice model was calibrated and validated using a two-year field experiment.Four irrigation and drainage treatments were designed for the experiment:alternate wetting and drying(AWD),controlled drainage(CD),controlled irrigation and drainage for a low water level(CID1),and controlled irrigation and drainage for a high water level(CID2).According to the indicators normalized root mean square error(NRMSE)and index of agreement(d),the calibrated CERES-Rice model accurately predicted grain yield(NRMSE=6.67%,d=0.77),,shoot biomass(NRMSE=3.37%,d=0.77),actual evapotranspiration(ETa)(NRMSE=3.83%,d=0.74),irrigation volume(NRMSE=15.56%,d=0.94),and leaf area index(NRMSE=9.69%,d=0.98)over 2 a.The calibrated model was subsequently used to evaluate rice production in response to the four treatments(AWD,CD,CID1,and CID2)under 60 meteorological scenarios which were divided into wet years(22 a),normal years(16 a),and dry years(22 a).Results showed that the yield of AWD was the largest among four treatments in different hydrological years.Relative to that of AWD,the yield of CD,CID1,and CID2 were respectively reduced by 5.7%,2.6%,8.7%in wet years,9.2%,2.3%,8.6% in normal years,and 9.2%,3.8%,3.9% in dry years.However,rainwater use efficiency and irrigation water use efficiency were the greatest for CID2 in different hydrological years.The entropy-weighting TOPSIS model was used to optimize the four water-saving irrigation schemes in terms of water-saving,labor-saving and high-yield,based on the simulation results of the CERES-Rice model in the past 60 a.These results showed that CID1 and AWD were optimal in the wet years,CID1 and CID2 were optimal in the normal and dry years.These results may provide a strong scientific basis for the optimization of water-saving irrigation technology for rice.

华北山前平原区厚包气带次降水入渗补给定量估算

降水入渗补给定量估算对于区域水资源评价具有重要作用。在干旱半干旱地区,年降水入渗补给量通常取决于年内几次集中的降水特性。因而,开展次降水入渗补给机理研究,建立次降水入渗补给量估算方法,有望提高干旱半干旱地区入渗补给量评估的科学性和准确性。本文以华北山前平原地下水深埋区为例,利用中国科学院栾城农业生态系统试验站和河北冉庄水资源实验站实测的土壤含水量、土壤水势、地下水补给量和降水量等长序列资料校准Hydrus-1D模型,模拟日降水入渗补给过程,构建具有物理意义的次降水入渗补给事件划分标准,深入研究华北山前平原地下水深埋条件下次降水入渗补给机理,定量估算次降水入渗补给量,建立次降水入渗补给量和次降水量间的定量关系。研究结果表明:次降水入渗补给量具有较大的变异性,次降水入渗补给量与次降水量或次总有效水量(次降水量+前期200 cm土壤储水量)呈显著相关关系(P<0.01),决定系数(R^(2))达0.801~0.962;但次降水入渗补给系数与次降水量无显著相关关系,这是由于次降水入渗补给系数不能反映降水前期土壤水分条件对补给的影响。因此,在地下水深埋区,不建议利用次降水入渗补给系数来估算次降水入渗补给量。本研究结果对区域地下水资源评价具有重要理论意义。

沟水回灌水肥耦合对滴灌油葵节水控盐、增产提质的影响

为探究宁夏引黄灌区滴灌条件下盐碱化土壤油葵增产提质的适宜灌溉量与施肥量,以油葵为研究对象,以沟水为灌溉水源,通过3个灌溉水平与3个施肥水平的不同组合,探究不同水肥条件对油葵的生长、产量、品质、作物水分利用效率以及土壤pH和脱盐率的影响,并采用CRITIC综合评价法进行分析,以期为宁夏引黄灌区盐碱化土壤油葵水肥管理提供参考。研究结果表明,滴灌条件下,高水高肥(S3F3)处理生长、产量指标均最优,但就产量而言,与中水中肥(S2F2)处理差异不显著;就水分利用效率而言,中水中肥处理(S2F2)最优;对于油葵品质而言,中水高肥(S2F3)处理粗脂肪含量最高,高水低肥(S3F1)处理油酸含量最高,中水中肥(S2F2)处理亚油酸含量最高;就降低土壤pH而言,中水高肥(S2F3)处理表现最优;对于提高脱盐率而言,中水中肥(S2F2)处理显著优于其他处理,较对照提高86.12%;通过CRITIC权重法,得出以沟水为灌溉水源,滴灌技术下适宜宁夏引黄灌区盐碱化土壤油葵节水控盐、增产提质最有效的水肥耦合处理为中水中肥(S2F2)处理,即沟水含盐量为506mg/L,灌溉定额为1875m^(3)/hm^(2),尿素450kg/hm^(2),氯化钾150kg/hm^(2)。

基于地下水均衡模型的河套灌区地下水补给排泄量分析

【目的】多灌少排的灌溉制度导致河套灌区地下水位上升,土壤盐碱化问题突出,模拟分析地下水补给排泄过程能够增进对河套灌区地下水变化过程的理解。【方法】建立考虑排水过程的生育期-冻融期地下水均衡模型,分别采用LH-OAT算法和ES-MDA算法进行参数敏感性分析和参数率定,并应用在河套灌区义长灌域。【结果】地下水均衡模型中地下水埋深对潜水蒸发极限埋深、潜水蒸发系数、灌溉水补给系数敏感。模型在河套灌区应用精度良好,能够充分反映灌域地下水埋深和地下水排水量的变化过程。对灌域地下水补给排泄关系进行分析发现,灌域地下水补给主要来源于灌溉水入渗,灌域地下水排泄主要去向为潜水蒸发。在5、7、10月,灌域地下水储量由于较大的灌溉用水和秋浇引水量而增加;9月份潜水蒸发量对地下水消耗量较小,这导致地下水储量增加;6、8月由于引水的补给量减少,部分地下水储量被潜水蒸发消耗。【结论】本文建立的考虑冻融期和地下水排水过程的水量均衡模型应用在义长灌域效果较好,灌域不同月份地下水储量变化受引水量、地下水埋深、排水量等多种因素主导。

Optimization of inter-seasonal nitrogen allocation increases yield and resource-use efficiency in a water-limited wheat-maize cropping system in the North China Plain

Winter wheat–summer maize cropping system in the North China Plain often experiences droughtinduced yield reduction in the wheat season and rainwater and nitrogen(N)fertilizer losses in the maize season.This study aimed to identify an optimal interseasonal water-and N-management strategy to alleviate these losses.Four ratios of allocation of 360 kg N ha^(-1)between the wheat and maize seasons under one-time presowing root-zone irrigation(W0)and additional jointing and anthesis irrigation(W2)in wheat and one irrigation after maize sowing were set as follows:N1(120:240),N2(180:180),N3(240:120)and N4(300:60).The results showed that under W0,the N3 treatment produced the highest annual yield,crop water productivity(WPC),and nitrogen partial factor productivity(PFPN).Increased N allocation in wheat under W0 improved wheat yield without affecting maize yield,as surplus nitrate after wheat harvest was retained in the topsoil layers and available for the subsequent maize.Under W2,annual yield was largest in the N2 treatment.The risk of nitrate leaching increased in W2 when N application rate in wheat exceeded that of the N2 treatment,especially in the wet year.Compared to W2N2,the W0N3 maintained 95.2%grain yield over two years.The WPCwas higher in the W0 treatment than in the W2 treatment.Therefore,following limited total N rate,an appropriate fertilizer N transfer from maize to wheat season had the potential of a“triple win”for high annual yield,WPCand PFPN in a water-limited wheat–maize cropping system.

典型引黄灌区包气带与地下水动态响应试验

【目的】开展银川平原引黄灌溉引起的包气带和地下水的动态响应试验,研究“灌溉水-包气带水-地下水”的转换过程和规律。【方法】以典型引黄灌区水田为研究对象,运用水文地质学、土壤水动力学等学科理论对原位试验观测资料数值分析,借助Origin、SPSS等统计分析软件进行数据处理,利用Hydrus-1D、Surfer等数值模拟软件进行拟合和插值分析。【结果】结果得出,灌溉过程中包气带各埋深层位的水分和负压变化呈显著相关性,相关系数达0.9以上;运用Hydrus-1D拟合田间土壤水分特征曲线,发现叠加各埋深层位可得到较连续的拟合曲线;在多次灌溉入渗试验中,第1次灌溉入渗引起的地下水动态响应最快,灌溉后响应时间为388.8 min;运用地下水灌溉响应法定量测算灌溉入渗能力,算得田间灌溉入渗系数均值为0.202;对地下水位动态进行插值分析,发现回灌逐步形成“水丘”中心,地下水流场也随之发生变化;通过地下水补给源项分析,引黄灌区内灌溉水对地下水的年灌溉补给贡献率达79%。【结论】通过原位田间试验,进一步厘清引黄灌区的包气带特性和地下水响应过程,发现引黄灌溉对灌区地下水的补给和流场特征有着决定性的作用,为提高引黄水量利用率和包气带-地下水资源评估、管理及调控提供一定科学支撑。