Assessment of Herbaceous Species Diversity in Lede and Galumji, Wawa-Zange Forest Reserve, Gombe State, Nigeria

The study was carried out in Wawa-Zange Forest Reserve. The aim was to investigate the Herbaceous Species Composition and Diversity. Point Centered Quarter (PCQ) Sampling method was used to conduct the study. Data obtained was analyzed for Frequency, Relative Frequency, Density, Relative Density and Importance Value Index. The result obtained showed a total number of twenty. Herbaceous Plant Species. Out of this number 17 were Forbs and 3 were Grasses. They belonged to 9 families and 19 genera. The family Fabaceae (Subfamily Caesalpinoideae, Papilionoideae and Mimosoideae) had 5 species, and Malvaceae had 5 species while Poaceae had 3 species, Rubiaceae had 2 species. Euphorbiaceae, Linderniaceae, Acanthaceae, Commelinaceae and Arecaceae had 1 species each. Simpson’s index of diversity (1 - D) was (0.60) while Shannon-Wiener index was (2.21). The species with the highest importance value index was Urena lobata L. (65.47%) and the species with lowest importance value index were Palisota hirsuta, Cassia rotundifolia, Amorphophallus abyssinicus, and Corchorus olitorius with (2.93%). These plants therefore require urgent conservation measures.

Peat properties of a tropical forest reserve adjacent to a fire-break canal

Tropical peat comprises decomposed dead plant material and acts like a sponge to absorb water,making it fully saturated.However,drought periods dry it readily and increases its vulnerability to fire.Peat fires emit greenhouse gases and particles contributing to haze,and prevention by constructing fire-break canals to reduce fire spread into forest reserves is crucial.This paper aims to determine peat physical and chemical properties near a fire-break canal at different fire frequency areas.Peat sampling was conducted at two forest reserves in Malaysia which represent low fire frequency and high fire frequency areas.The results show that peat properties were not affected by the construction of a fire-break canal,however lignin and cellulose content increased significantly from the distance of the canal in both areas.The study concluded that fire frequency did not significantly influence peat properties except for porosity.The higher fibre content in the high frequency area did not influence moisture content nor the ability to regain moisture.Thus,fire frequency might contribute differently to changes in physical and chemical properties,hence management efforts to construct fire-break canals and restoration efforts should protect peatlands from further degradation.These findings will benefit future management and planning for forest reserves.

Flora, Structure and Carbon Sequestration of Vegetation in the Southeast of the Mono Biosphere Reserve in Togo Amidst Environmental Challenges

In most Sub-Saharan African countries such as Togo, people’s heavy dependence on ecosystem services is a major factor in accelerating the degradation of natural resources, which are already suffering as a result of climatic factors. This study was initiated to contribute to the sustainable and rational management of forest resources in the south-east of the Mono Biosphere Reserve in Togo. It specifically aims to identify and characterize the flora of the residual forest ecosystems within the reserve through their specific diversity, demographic structure, and carbon sequestration potential. The study was carried out in the forest ecosystems of Avévé. The methodology used was based on the analysis of phytosociological, forestry, ecological, and regeneration inventory data. Overall, the study revealed that the RBMT still has floristically viable habitats, despite the anthropogenic pressures it is subject to revealed a floristic diversity of 160 plant species divided into 52 families and 135 genera. The most represented families are Rubiaceae (29.09%), followed by Fabaceae (27.94%). The most represented species are Mitragyna inermis (Willd.) Kuntze (24.38%), Lecaniodiscus cupanioides Planch. Ex Benth (X) and Lonchocarpus sericeus (Poir.) Kunth (10.93%). The high presence of Mitragyna inermis observed in all the ecological groups identified makes it the characteristic species of the flooded marshy areas of southeast Togo and contributes to the resilience of the ecosystems and populations in the study area. The Shannon index for the formation groups varies between (3.03 and 5.16) bits. Pielou’s equitability varies between (0.43 and 0.63) bits. The overall average density is estimated at 210 stems/ha, with an average diameter of 25.57 ± 21.77 m and an average height of 7.93 ± 3.83 m. The adjustment of the diameter classes of the plant groups to the Weibull distribution gave an “inverted J” shape with coefficient values of less than 1 overall, reflecting the existence of multispecific or uneven-aged stands. Assessment of the horizontal and vertical structure shows a predominance of the shrub layer in all the groups identified. The carbon sequestration potential is 41.89 T/Ha. Despite ongoing anthropogenic pressures, the Mono Biosphere Reserve abounds in a relatively rich diversity of flora, the preservation of which is essential for the survival of biodiversity and even for the riparian population. The data provided by this study would form the basis for sustainable management planning of the forest islands in the biosphere reserve.

Estimation of bamboo forest carbon reserves and analysis of temporal and spatial variation characteristics in China

The study looks at the carbon reserves of bamboo forests in China from 2004 to 2018.The temporal and spatial variation characteristics of the carbon reserves of bamboo forests in China were analyzed.It enriches the research field of bamboo forest carbon reserve change at the national level.The bamboo forest carbon reserves of 20 provinces in China were estimated by using the calculation method of bamboo forest biomass and bamboo forest soil organic matter carbon reserves,and the temporal and spatial variation characteristics of bamboo forest carbon reserves in China were analyzed by GIS spatial analysis method.The results are as follows:(1)the carbon reserves of bamboo forests in China during 2004-2008,2009-2013 and 2014-2018 were 707.08 Tg C,802.83 Tg C and 845.05 Tg C respectively,with an average annual growth rate of 1.95%.Fujian,Jiangxi,Zhejiang,Hunan,Sichuan and Guangdong account for 78.01%-78.80% of the total bamboo forest carbon storage in China.(2)From 2004 to 2008,the carbon reserves of bamboo biomass in China were 380.63 Tg C-454.92 Tg C,accounting for 52.64%-52.91% of the total carbon reserves;The carbon storage of soil organic matter is 342.39 Tg C-406.33 Tg C,accounting for 47.01%-47.36% of the total carbon storage.(3)The spatial distribution of bamboo forest carbon reserves in China shows a high-high,low-low correlation trend.The relevant provinces are Zhejiang,Fujian,Guangdong and Jiangxi,which are concentrated in the southern provinces of China.The low-low related provinces are Inner Mongolia,Hebei and Liaoning,which are concentrated in the northern provinces of China.In the future,China’s bamboo forest carbon reserves will increase steadily.Bamboo forest carbon reserves are concentrated in southern provinces.China should further improve the level of spatial agglomeration and give full play to the role of bamboo forest carbon sink.

Analysis of Forest Landscape Pattern in Nanling National Nature Reserve,Guangdong

[Objective] The study was to analyze the forest landscape in Nanling Na- tional Nature Reserve to provide information for the protection of local forest ecosys- tems. [Method] With the documents of 1：10 000 topographic maps, updated Forest Resource Inventory Data, based on the GIS platform and Fragstats software, the paper analyzed the patterns and heterogeneity of forest landscapes by adopting the landscape ecological theory and the method of landscape index. [Result] The forest landscape types, in terms of area occupation from large to small, are in the order of evergreen broad-leaved forest, coniferous mixed forest, evergreen and deciduous broad-leaved mixed forest, shrubs, mixed needle leaf forest, suitable land for forest deciduous broad-leaved forest and non-forest. [Conclusion] Overall, the Reserve had maintained sufficient forest landscape diversity with a low level fragmentation. The distribution of various types of forest landscape was extremely uneven, dominated by several types such as evergreen broad-leaved forest, coniferous forest, etc.

Carbon storage of a subtropical forest ecosystem: a case study of the Jinggang Mountain National Nature Reserve in south-eastern China

The carbon cycle of forest ecosystems plays a key role in regulating CO2 concentrations in the atmosphere. Research on carbon storage estimation of forest ecosystems has become a major research topic. However, carbon budgets of subtropical forest ecosystems have received little attention. Reports of soil carbon storage and topographic heterogeneity of carbon storage are limited. This study focused on the Jinggang Mountain National Nature Reserve as an example of a mid-subtropical forest and evaluated soil and vegetation carbon storage by field sampling combined with GIS, RS and GPS technology. We classified the forest into nine forest types using ALOS high-resolution remote sensing images. The evergreen broad-leaved forest has the largest area, occupying 26.5% of the total area, followed by coniferous and broad-leaved mixed forests and warm temperate coniferous forest, occupying 24.2 and 22.9%, respectively. The vegetation and soil carbon storage of the whole forest ecosystem were 1,692,344 and 5,514,707 t, with a carbon density of 7.4 and 24.2 kg/m^2, respectively, which suggests that the ecosystem has great carbon storage capacity. The topographic heterogeneity of the carbon storage was also analysed. The largest vegetation storage and soil storage is at 700–800 and 1000–1100 m, respectively. The vegetation carbon storage is highest in the southeast, south and southwest.

Coarse woody debris and wood-colonizing fungi differences between a reserve stand and a managed forest in the Taborz region of Poland

The aim of this research was to evaluate the amount of woody debris (m3/ha) on the forest floor and the associated wood-colonizing fungi. The study was performed in the Taborz region, known for its Scots pine provenance experiments, against the background of a recently launched Polish legislation to protect the biodiversity on the forest floor in managed (harvested) stands. We investigated a managed stand (136-years-old) and the reserve stand ‘Sosna Taborska’(261-years-old). In the reserve stand, the mean volume of woody debris was six times higher than in the managed forests, i.e. 65 versus 11 m3/ha. In addition, in the reserve stand, the number of fungi taxa colonizing the dead wood was larger than in the managed stands, with a higher number of fruitbodies. Total fungal richness was higher in the reserve than in the managed stand, i.e. 28 versus 12 species. The dominant taxa at both sites were Fomitopsis pinicola and Fomes The aim of this research was to evaluate the amount of woody debris (m^3/ha) on the forest floor and the associated wood-colonizing fungi. The study was performed in the Taborz region, known for its Scots pine provenance experiments, against the background of a recently launched Polish legislation to protect the biodiversity on the forest floor in managed (harvested) stands. We investigated a managed stand (136-years-old) and the reserve stand ‘Sosna Taborska’(261-years-old). In the reserve stand, the mean volume of woody debris was six times higher than in the managed forests, i.e. 65 versus 11 m^3/ha. In addition, in the reserve stand, the number of fungi taxa colonizing the dead wood was larger than in the managed stands, with a higher number of fruitbodies. Total fungal richness was higher in the reserve than in the managed stand, i.e. 28 versus 12 species. The dominant taxa at both sites were Fomitopsis pinicola and Fomes fomentarius, although some taxa were only found in the reserve (e.g., Stereum hirsutum). The volume of woody debris as well as the diversity of fungi in the managed stand were lower than in the reserve, albeit greater than in other Scots pine stands in Poland. These results testify to the gains in biodiversity yielded by the management conservation management approach at the reserve stand.

Forest structure and anthropogenic pressures in the Pachmarhi biosphere reserve of India

A critical first step in establishing biosphere reserves--under the Man and Biosphere Programme of UNESCO--is to generate baseline information for future courses of action. The present study aims to assess the structure and composition of forests--along with anthro- pogenic pressures mounting on these forests in the buffer zone of one such biosphere reserves--the Pachmarhi bio- sphere reserve of India. The quadrat method was employed for sampling vegetation, and information on anthropogenic pressures was collected by conducting interviews with local people and forest officials and collecting it from secondary sources. A total of 39 tree species were sampled in 82 quadrats; of these 26 tree species were in standing stage, 25 in sapling, and 35 in seedling. Chloroxylon swi- etenia emerged as the most dominant tree species having highest importance value index, followed by Tectona grandis, Terminalia tomentosa, and Hardwickia binata. Nine tree species and their saplings, including Sterculia urens and Terminalia arjuna, were exploited so badly that they were only found in the seedlings stage. The unavail- ability of standing trees of 12 important tree species including Aegle marmelos and Phyllanthus emblicaindicates the intensity and gravity of anthropogenic pres- sures on these important tree species. If the present anthropogenic pressure continues, which has inhibited the regeneration of several tree species, then substantial neg- ative ecological and societal consequences can be expected.

Integrated Assessment of Forest Cover Change and Above-Ground Carbon Stock in Pugu and Kazimzumbwi Forest Reserves, Tanzania

A study was conducted to estimate the forest cover change, quantify and map tree above-ground carbon stock using Remote sensing and GIS techniques together with forest inventory. Landsat images of 1980, 1995 and 2010 acquired during dry season were used in the estimation of cover changes. Supervised image classification using Maximum Likeli-hood Classifier was performed in ERDAS Imagine software to analyze the images and further analysis was performed in Arc GIS 9.3 software. Stratified sampling procedure was used to select concentric inventory plots in Pugu Forest Reserve (PFR) and Kazimzumbwi Forest Reserve (KFR). Plots were laid according to NAFORMA, and the tree parameters in each sampling plot were collected. A Microsoft Excel spreadsheet was used to compute the above-ground bio- mass for each plot using an empirical equation relating wood basic density and tree height. The above-ground carbon was calculated using a conversion factor of 0.49. Geostatistical method in ArcGIS was used to analyze and map carbon. Results revealed that for the periods 1980-1995 and 1995-2010, Closed Forest in PFR decreased by 4.5% and 25.3% respectively, while for KFR, Closed Forest decreased by 11.9% and 31.3% respectively. The mean carbon density for PFR and KFR were respectively 5.72 tC/ha and 0.98 tC/ha while carbon stocks were 14 730.41 tC and 7 206.46 tC re- spectively. The revealed low carbon densities were attributable to decline in area under Closed Forest in the two Forest Reserves. The study recommends concerted efforts to enhance proper management of the forests so that the two forest reserves may contribute to REDD initiatives.

Evaluation of land-use pattern change in West Bhanugach Reserved Forest,Bangladesh,using remote sensing and GIS techniques

A study was conducted to investigate the land-use pattern change over a period of 18 years （1988-2006） by using remote sens- ing and Geographical Information System （GIS） technologies, in the West Bhanugach Reserved Forest, a hill forest, in Sylhet Forest Divi- sion of Bangladesh, The images were processed using ERDAS Imagine software. Both supervised and unsupervised approaches were ap- plied and ground control points were collected using a GPS. Maps were prepared using GIS software. Results showed that vegetation cover drastically decreased from the year 1988 to 1996 （l 826 ha to l 714.85 ha）, but increased gradually from the year 1996 to 2006 （l 714.85 ha to l 847.83 ha） due to the initiation of co-management practice involving local communities. Change in bare land was inversely proportionate to the amount of vegetation cover changes unless any other land-uses were converted into bare land. The area of water bodies increased from the year 1988 to 1996 （307.67 ha to 379.53 ha）, but decreased from the year 1996 to 1997, then remained invariabile from the year 1997 to 2006. Some recommendations were also made for applying the RS and GIS techniques to study the land-use pattern change in the Bhanugach Reserved Forest and to create a GIS data base for the study area.

Assessing current stocks and future sequestration potential of forest biomass carbon in Daqing Mountain Nature Reserve of Inner Mongolia, China

Assessment of regional forest carbon stocks and underlying controls is critical for guiding forest management in the context of carbon sequestration. We investigated the variations in tree biomass carbon stocks relating to forest types, and estimated the total tree biomass carbon stocks and projected gains through natural stand development by 2020 and 2050 in the Daqing Mountain Nature Reserve based on Category II data of the Forest Inventory of Inner Mongolia for the period ending 2008. Over a total area of 388,577 ha,this nature reserve currently stores an estimated 2221 Gg C in tree aboveground biomass alone, with potential to grow by more than 30 % to reach 2938 Gg C by 2020 and nearly double to 4092 Gg C by 2050 through natural development of the existing forest stands. The tree biomass carbon density and potential gain in tree biomass carbon stocks vary markedly among forest types and with stand development.The variations in the potential change of tree biomass carbon density for the periods 2008–2020 and 2008–2050 among forest types partly reflect the varying relationships of tree biomass carbon density with stand age for different tree species, and partly are attributable to variations in the stand age structure among different forest types. Of the major forest types, the ranking of projected changes in tree biomass carbon density are not consistent with variations in the relationship between tree biomass carbon density and stand age, neither are they explainable by variations in stand age structures, implying the interactive effect between forest type and stand dynamics on temporal changes in tree biomass carbon density. Birch rank highest for future biomass carbon sequestration because of its dominance in cover area and better age structure for potential gain in tree biomass carbon stocks. Poplar and larch were out-performers compared to other forest types given their greater contribution to total tree biomass carbon stocks relative to their distributional areas. Findings in this study illustrate that protection and proper management of under-aged forests can deliver marked gains in biomass carbon sequestration. This is of great importance to policy-makers as well as to scientific communities in seeking effective solutions for adaptive forest management and mitigation of anthropogenic greenhouse gases emissions using forest ecosystems.

Acarine ectoparasites of Panti Forest Reserve in Johore,Malaysia

Objective:To identify the presence of acarine ectoparasites and determine whether there is any potential public health risk in Panti Forest Reserve,Johore,Malaysia.Methods:Trapping of animals and avifauna was conducted simultaneously along 5 expedition trails using 150 wire traps,10 harp traps and 30 mist nets for 6 consecutive nights.A total of 140 animals consisting of 7 species of birds,19 species of bats,6 species of rodents and 1 species of tree-shrew as well as 8 myriapods were examined.Results:Infestation rates of ticks,mesostigmatid mites and chiggers on animals examined were 24.3%,28.6%and 27.9%,respectively.Infestation on bats was low(1.5%) and none occurred on birds.Majority of ticks extracted were at immature stages(78.9%). Genera of ticks on animals were Amblyomma,Dermacentor,Haemaphysalis and Ixodes.Ixodes granulatus was the only species of licks identified from the animals.Examination of ticks under vegetation revealed 54%adults leading to identification of 3 species of ticks.A total of 7 species of mesostigmatid mites were found.6 species were on rodent,Maxomys mrifer and another one species,Laelaps nuttalli was found only on Leopoldamys sabanus.Laelaps sanguisugus was the only mesostigmatid found infesting tree-shrews.Seven genera of chiggers were identified.From this,5 genera were on rodents,4 genera on tree-shrews and 1 genus on a bat.Conclusions:A total of 16 genera,2 sub-genus and 14 species of acarine ectoparasites were found in this area. Findings of the survey demonstrate the presence of three spesies of acarine ectoparasites which have potential health risk i.e.Ixodes granulalus,Laelaps nuttalli and Leptotrombidium deliense.

Forest Landscape Change and Driving Forces in Nanling National Nature Reserve,Guangdong

Landscape change and its driving forces are always one of the major issues in landscape ecology. In this paper,we investigated the landscape pattern of Nanling National Nature Reserve using TM data and forest stand map. The paper aims at exploring how and why the landscape changed form 1988 to 2009. The results indicated that: the major landscape types are evergreen broad-leaved forest and coniferous forests,the area ratio of both total more than 80%; area ratio of other landscape types is less than 10%,including mainly mixed coniferous and broad-leaved forest,deciduous forest,shrub,other woodland,cultivated land,other land,construction land and water. During the 20 years,evergreen broad-leaved forest landscape has become a large-scale substrate,coniferous forests are interspersed,a small area of mixed coniferous and broad-leaved mixed forest patches expands; forest area in the study area changes slightly,the number of blocks increases,the degree of landscape fragmentation increases; forest landscapes change,and are less affected by human activities,which is closely related to the establishment,management and protection of protected areas.

Effectiveness of Nature Reserves for Natural Forests Protection in Tropical Hainan: a 20 Year Analysis

The establishment of nature reserves is a key approach for biodiversity conservation worldwide. However, there is a lack of unified methodology to evaluate the effectiveness of nature reserves, particularly in China, the world′s most populous nation supporting some of the most valuable biodiversity hotspots in the world. In this study, we conducted a long-term and large-scale analysis of the effectiveness of 20 of the earliest nature reserves established in Hainan Province, an island home to among the highest concentration of plants and animals in China. Remote sensing imagery from 1988, 1998, and 2008 were analyzed to investigate the temporal and spatial changes of natural forests in these nature reserves and surrounding areas. We also conducted transition matrix analysis and principle component analysis to identify the driving factors that affect the protection effectiveness of nature reserves. The results were as follows: 1) During the 20-year period from 1988 to 2008, natural forests coverage of the 20 studied nature reserves dropped 2.34 percentage points, whereas the natural forests coverage dropped 11.31 percentage points in a 0–5 km outside reserve buffer and 9.36 percentage points in a 5–10 km outside reserve buffer, indicating a significant inhibitory effect of the nature reserves on the loss of natural forests. 2) Natural forests coverage dropped in 60% of the studied nature reserves during the 20-year period, suggesting a poor protection effectiveness of these reserves, while the coverage proportion showed some increase(0%/yr–5%/yr) in other reserves. 3) Expansion of rubber and pulp forests as part of a booming economy were the main factors affecting the effectiveness of the nature reserves for conserving natural forests in Hainan Province. The results of this study provide an important empirical basis for the protection of natural forests in Hainan Province, which can be used as a blueprint for nature reserve evaluation in other places in China.

Assessing and Predicting Changes in the Status of Gambari Forest Reserve, Nigeria Using Remote Sensing and GIS Techniques

Rapid population growth and increasing economic activities have resulted in unsustainable exploitation and rapid decline in the spatial extent of forest reserves in Nigeria. Studying land use dynamics of these forest reserves is essential for analysing various ecological and developmental consequences over time. Land use/land cover mapping, change detection and prediction are essential for decision-making and implementing appropriate policy responses relating to land uses. This paper aims at assessing and predicting changes in land use/land cover at Gambari forest reserve, Nigeria using remote sensing and GIS techniques. The study determined the magnitude, rate and dynamics of change in the spatial extent of the forest reserve between 1984 and 2014 using multi-temporal datasets (Landsat TM 1984 and 2000 and OLI/TIRS 2014). The imageries were classified using ArcGIS 10.0 version with support of ground truth data and Land use Change Modeller (LCM) and Markovian processes were employed to analyse the pattern and trend of change. Prediction of 2044 scenario carried out using neural network, which is a built-in module in the Idrisi. The study revealed dramatic decline in the extent of the forest reserve as both the plantation of exotic tree species (Tectona grandis and Gmelina) and the indigenous stands have been logged in several places for timber and to make way for cultivation of crops. In addition, pressures from other land uses like settlements have also led to increased non-forest uses particularly bare grounds. The study concluded that increasing loss of the indigenous forest and plantation would continue thus having implications for biodiversity conservation in the study area. There is the need for participation of different stakeholders and sectors to solve conflicting demands on limited forest resources and ensure ecosystem integrity.

Forest Fringe Communities Participation in Forest Reserve Sustainability in Ghana

The paper investigated the forest fringe community’s participation in forest reserve sustainability in Ghana using Brong-Ahafo Region of Ghana as a case study. The key issues examined are the forest reserve management strategies, stakeholder’s participation and livelihood activities of forest fringe communities. Two stage sampling technique was used to sample forty-two respondents for the study. A structured questionnaire in an interview form was used to solicit information from the respondents. Descriptive statistics was used to analyse the data. The results of the study indicate that there is a management plan for the forest reserve but Forest Services Division (FSD) does not follow its prescriptions strictly, the involvement of Forest Fringe Communities (FFCs) by FSD in the management of the forest reserve was insignificant and evidence of FSD not establishing income generating activity for FFCs livelihood sustenance. It is therefore recommended that community members should be empowered to play the role of co-managers of the forest reserve and there should be regular visit and interaction between FSD and the FFCs.

Natural regeneration in logging gaps of different sizes in Subri River Forest Reserve(Ghana)

Subri River Forest Reserve(SR)is the most extensive forest area in Ghana with an accompanying rich floral species.Over the years,logging from both legally prescribed and illegal operations remain the predominant forest disturbance in SR.Gap creation following logging is crucial in determining tree species composition and diversity.Hence,the study evaluated the composition and diversity of naturally regenerated tree species in logging gaps of different sizes and,again examined the roles of these tree species in fulfilling the economic and ecological agenda of sustainable forest management after logging in SR.Twelve gaps were randomly selected:4 each were grouped into small size(≤200 m^(2)),medium size(201–300 m^(2)),and large size(≥300 m^(2)).Data were gathered from 1 m^(2) circular area at gap centres and repeatedly inside 1 m width strip along 20 m individual N-S-E-W transects.Species diversity differed significantly between gap sizes.Higher diversity indices were measured in large size gaps.Gap sizes shared similar species.There were significant differences among various height groupings of tree species across all three gap sizes.Pioneers preferred medium to large size gaps,while shadetolerant tree species preferred small size gaps for their abundance.Vulnerable and Lower Risk Near Threatened tree species under Conservation Status and,Premium and Commercial tree species under Utilisation Status preferred small size gaps for their proliferation and conservation.Therefore,we recommend the single tree-based selective logging for ensuring creations of small to medium size(200–300 m^(2))gaps through adjustments to the logging permit process,revision of Allocation Quota Permit,strict adherence to the 40-year polycyclic selection system,along with more dedicated enforcement and monitoring.Changes along these protocols would tremendously facilitate natural regeneration of different suites of timber species resulting in the improvement of the overall biodiversity conservation associated with the forest,more sustainable forest harvests and more income to those who receive permits.

Spatial Pattern of Land Cover Change Using Remotely Sensed Imagery and GIS: A Case Study of Omo-Shasha-Oluwa Forest Reserve, SW Nigeria (1986-2002)

Spatial patterns of land cover changes in the Omo-Shasha-Oluwa Forest Reserves were conducted on Landsat TM and ETM+ imageries of 1986 and 2002 using remote sensing and GIS techniques. Extent of tree plantation (Gmelina arborea) grew from about 145 sq. km in 1986 to about 322 sq. km in 2002 (122% increase). The natural forest declined from about 2569 sq. km in 1986 to about 2253 sq. km by 2002, while the non-forest areas increased by some 5% from 341 km2?in 1986 to about 490 km2?by 2002. Land cover pattern and its changes in the study area are linked to both natural and anthropogenic processes such as illegal logging, demand for soft wood for industries and expansion of settlements. The conversion of natural forest into monoculture plantations should be discouraged because they do not give room for biodiversity. Specific forestry and environmental laws and regulations that significantly address landscape changes in reserved and protected areas should be enforced to reduce activities that negatively affect the forest reserves. There is also the need to develop a wider and more integrated GIS system of the forest and other land resources in the country to assist different kinds of planning and management activities.

Land Use/Land Cover Changes of Ago-Owu Forest Reserve, Osun State, Nigeria Using Remote Sensing Techniques

Remote sensing (RS) and GIS are important methods for land use assessment and land cover transition. In this study, land use/land cover changes in the Ago-Owu Forest Reserve, Osun State, Nigeria have been assessed. Landsat 5 TM, Landsat 7 ETM+ and Landsat 8 OLI were acquired for 1986, 2002 and 2017 respectively. The three scenes corresponded to path 190 and row 055 of WRS-2 (Worldwide Reference System). The processing of the imagery was preceded by the clipping of the study area from the satellite image. The boundary of the reserve was carefully digitized and used to clip the imagery to produce an image map of the forest reserve. Using the supervised image classification procedure, training sites were used to produce land use/land cover maps. The same classification scheme was used for the 1986, 2002 and 2017 images to facilitate the detection of change. The differences in the area covered by the different polygons between the three sets of images were measured in km2. The results show that during 1986 and 2017, there is a dramatic increase of build-up areas with a change of 55.65 km2 and sparse vegetation (farmland and grassland) with a change of 53.97 km2, while a dramatic decrease of dense vegetation (forest areas) with a change of 109.61 km2. The consequence of these results is that over the years, the population of people living in the forest reserve has increased and many of them are engaged in farming, leading to an increase in farmland. In addition, logging activities continued unabated in the forest reserve, as demonstrated by a sharp increase in the deforested area within the reserve. The maps produced in this study will serve as a planning tool for the Osun State Forestry Department to plan reforestation activities for the forest reserve.

Characterization of Some Typical Soils of the Miombo Woodland Ecosystem of Kitonga Forest Reserve, Iringa, Tanzania： Physico-Chemical Properties and Classification

Despite the fact that miombo woodland soils have significant implications in global climate change processes, few studies have been done to characterize and classify the soils of the miombo woodland ecosystem of Tanzania. The current study was carried out to map and classify soils of Kitonga Forest Reserve, which is a typical miombo woodland ecosystem, in order to generate relevant information for their use and management. A representative study area of 52 km2 was selected and mapped at a scale of 1：50,000 on the basis of relief. Ten representative soil profiles were excavated and described using standard methods. Soil samples were taken from genetic soil horizons and analyzed in the laboratory for physico-chemical characteristics using standard methods. Using field and laboratory analytical data, the soils were classified according to the FAO-World Reference Base （FAO-WRB） for Soil Resources system as Cambisols, Leptosols and Fluvisols. In the USDA-NRCS Soil Taxonomy system the soils were classified as Inceptisols and Entisols. Topographical features played an important role in soil formation. The different soil types differed in physico-chemical properties, hence exhibit differences in their potentials, constraints and need specific management strategies. Texture varied from sandy to different loams; pH from 5.1 to 5.9; organic carbon from 0.9 g/kg to 20 g/kg; and CEC from 3 cmol/（＋）kg to 24 cmol/（＋）kg. Sustainable management of miombo woodlands ecosystem soils requires reduced deforestation and reduced land degradation.