Enlightenment of calcite veins in deep Ordovician Wufeng-Silurian Longmaxi shales fractures to migration and enrichment of shale gas in southern Sichuan Basin, SW China

The relationship between fracture calcite veins and shale gas enrichment in the deep Ordovician Wufeng Formation-Silurian Longmaxi Formation (Wufeng-Longmaxi) shales in southern Sichuan Basin was investigated through core and thin section observations, cathodoluminescence analysis, isotopic geochemistry analysis, fluid inclusion testing, and basin simulation. Tectonic fracture calcite veins mainly in the undulating part of the structure and non-tectonic fracture calcite veins are mainly formed in the gentle part of the structure. The latter, mainly induced by hydrocarbon generation, occurred at the stage of peak oil and gas generation, while the former turned up with the formation of Luzhou paleouplift during the Indosinian. Under the influence of hydrocarbon generation pressurization process, fractures were opened and closed frequently, and oil and gas episodic activities are recorded by veins. The formation pressure coefficient at the maximum paleodepth exceeds 2.0. The formation uplift stage after the Late Yanshanian is the key period for shale gas migration. Shale gas migrates along the bedding to the high part of the structure. The greater the structural fluctuation is, the more intense the shale gas migration activity is, and the loss is more. The gentler the formation is, the weaker the shale gas migration activity is, and the loss is less. The shale gas enrichment in the core of gentle anticlines and gentle synclines is relatively higher.

Microfacies types and distribution of epicontinental shale: A case study of the Wufeng–Longmaxi shale in southern Sichuan Basin, China

For black shales,laminae and bedding are hard to identify,grain size is difficult to measure,and trace fossils do not exist.Taking the Ordovician Wufeng–Silurian Longmaxi shale in southern Sichuan Basin,China,as an example,the types,characteristics and models of microfacies in epicontinental shale are analyzed by means of full-scale observation of large thin sections,argon-ion polishing field emission-scanning electron microscopy(FE-SEM),and kerogen microscopy.The epicontinental sea develops delta,tidal flat and shelf facies,with black shale found in microfacies such as the underwater distributary channel and interdistributary bay under delta front facies,the calcareous and clayey flats under intertidal flat facies,the calcareous and clayey shelfs under shallow shelf facies,the deep slope,deep plain and deep depression under deep shelf facies,and the overflow under gravity flow facies.Basinward,silty lamina decreases and clayey lamina increases,the grain size changes from coarse silt to fine mud,the silica content increases from about 20%to above 55%,the carbonate and clay minerals content decreases from above 40%to around 10%,and the kerogen type changes from type II2 to type II1 and type I.Provenance and topography dominate the types and distribution of shale microfacies.The underwater distributary channel,interdistributary bay,clayey flat,clayey shelf,and overflow microfacies are developed in areas with sufficient sediment supply.The calcareous flat and calcareous shelf are developed in areas with insufficient sediment supply.The deep shelf shale area is divided into deep slope,deep plain,and deep depression microfacies as a result of three breaks.The formation of epicontinental shale with different microfacies is closely related to the tectonic setting,paleoclimate,and sea level rise.The relatively active tectonic setting increases the supply of terrigenous clasts,forming muddy water fine-grained sediment.The warm and humid paleoclimate is conducive to the enrichment of organic matter.The rapid sea level rise is helpful to the widespread black shale.

Source Rock and Cap Rock Controls on the Upper Ordovician Wufeng Formation–Lower Silurian Longmaxi Formation Shale Gas Accumulation in the Sichuan Basin and its Peripheral Areas

Objective The Upper Ordovician Wufeng Formation-Lower Silurian Longmaxi Formation is one of the priority interval for shale gas exploration in the Sichuan Basin and its peripheral areas, and commercial shale gas has been discovered from this interval in Jiaoshiba, Changning and Weiyuan shale gas fields in Sichuan Province. However, there is no significant discovery in other parts of the basin due to the different quality of black shale and the differences of tectonic evolution. Based on the progress of shale gas geological theory and exploration discoveries, as well as the theory of ＂source rock and cap rock controls on hydrocarbon accumulation＂, of the Upper Ordovician the main controlling factors Wufeng Formation-Lower Silurian Longmaxi Formation shale gas enrichment in the Sichuan Basin and its peripheral areas were analyzed, and the source rock and cap rock controls on the shale gas were also discussed. The results can provide new insights for the next shale gas exploration in this area.

Biostratigraphy and reservoir characteristics of the Ordovician Wufeng Formation-Silurian Longmaxi Formation shale in the Sichuan Basin and its surrounding areas,China

Through graptolite identification in profiles,graptolite zone division,contour map compilation,and analysis of mineral composition,TOC content,lamina distribution features of shale samples,the biostratigraphic and reservoir characteristics of Ordovician Wufeng Formation-Silurian Longmaxi Formation in the Sichuan Basin and its peripheral are sorted out.There are 4 graptolite zones(WF1 to WF4)in Wufeng Formation and 9(LM1 to LM9)in Longmaxi Formation,and the different graptolite zones can be calibrated by lithology and electrical property.The shale layers of these graptolite zones have two depocenters in the southwest and northeast,and differ in mineral composition,TOC,and lamina types.Among them,the graptolite zones of lower WF2 and WF4 are organic matter-poor massive hybrid shale,the upper part of WF1-WF2 and WF3 have horizontal bedding hybrid shale with organic matter,the LM1-LM4 mainly consist of organic-rich siliceous shale with horizontal bedding,and the LM5-LM9 graptolite zones consist of organic-lean hybrid shale with horizontal bedding.The mineral composition,TOC and lamina types of shale depend on the paleo-climate,paleo-water oxidation-reduction conditions,and paleo-sedimentation rate during its deposition.Deposited in oxygen-rich warm water,the lower parts of WF1 and WF2 graptolite zones have massive bedding,low TOC and silicon content.Deposited in cooler and oxygen-rich water,the WF4 has massive bedding,high calcium content and low TOC.Deposited in anoxic water with low rate,the upper part of WF2,WF3,and LM1-LM4 are composed of organic rich siliceous shale with horizontal bedding and high proportion of silt laminae.Deposited in oxygen rich water at a high rate,the graptolite zones LM5-LM9 have low contents of organic matter and siliceous content and high proportions of silt lamina.

Stratigraphic framework of theWufeng-Longmaxi shale in and around the Sichuan Basin,China:Implications for targeting shale gas

Stratigraphic division and correlation are crucial for the identification of sweet spots and drilling design of shale gas.In this study,a stratigraphic division and correlation was carried out for the Wufeng-Longmaxi Formations in southern China from the prospective of lithostratigraphy,sea level changes,and biostratigraphy using data from seismic investigation,wells,and outcrops.The Wufeng and Longmaxi Formations were respectively divided into four members,Wu 1 and Wu2 for the former and Long 1 and Long 2 for the latter.Of the members,Long 1 was subdivided and its first subdivision(Long 11)was further divided into 4 layers(Long 1^(1)_(1),Long 1^(2)_(1),Long 1^(3)_(1),and Long 1^(4)_(1)).Three eustatic cycles were recognized in the Wufeng-Longmaxi Formations.Cycle I corresponds to the Wufeng Formation with the maximum flooding surface at the top ofWu 1.Cycle II corresponds to Long 1,with the maximum flooding surface at the top of Long 1^(3)_(1).CycleⅢⅢcorresponds to Long 2.Furthermore,4 graptolite biozones(WF1 to WF4)were identified in the Wufeng Formation and 9 graptolite biozones(LM1 to LM9)in the Longmaxi Formation.WF1-2 and WF3-4 correspond to Wu 1 and Wu 2,respectively;and LM1,LM2-4,LM5,LM6,and LM7-9 correspond to Long 1^(1)_(1),Long 1^(2)_(1),Long 1^(3)_(1),Long 1^(4)_(1),and Long 12 and Long 2,respectively.Highquality shales mainly occur in the Wufeng Formation and Long 11.The major intervals that should be investigated with regards to shale gas production include LM1eLM5(10m thick)in the Weiyuan Block and WF1eLM5(20e35m thick)in the Changning Block.Long 1^(1)_(1)is believed to be an optimal target for drilling due to its high TOC content,siliceous content,porosity,microfracture density,and horizontal/vertical permeability ratio.

Basic characteristics of key interfaces in Upper Ordovician Wufeng Formation – Lower Silurian Longmaxi Formation in Sichuan Basin and its periphery,SW China

Based on anatomy of key areas and data points and analysis of typical features of shell layer in Guanyinqiao Member, basic characteristics of key interfaces, mainly bentonite layers, in the Upper Ordovician Wufeng Formation-Lower Silurian Longmaxi Formation in the Sichuan Basin and its surrounding areas and the relationship between these key interfaces with the deposition of organic-rich shale have been examined systematically. The Wufeng Formation-Longmaxi Formation has four types of marker beds with interface attributes, namely, the characteristic graptolite belt, Guanyinqiao Member shell layer, section with dense bentonite layers, and concretion section, which can be taken as key interfaces for stratigraphic division and correlation of the graptolite shale. The shell layer in Guanyinqiao Member is the most standard key interface in Wufeng Formation-Longmaxi Formation, and can also be regarded as an important indicator for judging the depositional scale of organic-rich shale in key areas. There are 8 dense bentonite sections of two types mainly occurring in 7 graptolite belts in these formations. They have similar interface characteristics with the shell layer in Guanyinqiao Member in thickness and natural gamma response, and belong to tectonic interfaces(i.e., event deposits). They have three kinds of distribution scales: whole region, large part of the region, and local part, and can be the third, fourth and fifth order sequence interfaces, and have a differential control effect on organic-rich shale deposits. The horizon the characteristic graptolite belt occurs first is the isochronous interface, which is not directly related to the deposition of organic-rich shale. Concretions only appear in local areas, and show poor stability in vertical and horizontal directions, and have no obvious relationship with the deposition of the organic-rich shale.

Rock physics model for velocity–pressure relations and its application to shale pore pressure estimation

Acoustic wave velocity has been commonly utilized to predict subsurface geopressure using empirical relations.Acoustic wave velocity is, however, affected by many factors. To estimate pore pressure accurately, we here propose to use elastic rock physics models to understand and analyze quantitatively the various contributions from these different factors affecting wave velocity. We report a closed-form relationship between the frame flexibility factor(γ) in a rock physics model and differential pressure, which presents the major control of pressure on elastic properties such as bulk modulus and compressional wave velocity. For a gas-bearing shale with abundant micro-cracks and fractures, its bulk modulus is much lower at abnormally high pore pressure(high γ values) where thin cracks and flat pores are open than that at normal hydrostatic pressure(low γ values) where pores are more rounded on average. The developed relations between bulk modulus and differential pressure have been successfully applied to the Upper Ordovician Wufeng and Lower Silurian Longmaxi formations in the Dingshan area of the Sichuan Basin to map the three-dimensional spatial distribution of pore pressure in the shale, integrating core, log and seismic data. The estimated results agree well with field measurements. Pressure coefficient is positively correlated to gas content. The relations and methods reported here could be useful for hydrocarbon exploration, production, and drilling safety in both unconventional and conventional fields.

Enrichment characteristics and exploration directions of deep shale gas of Ordovician-Silurian in the Sichuan Basin and its surrounding areas,China

The enrichment characteristics of deep shale gas in the Ordovician Wufeng-Silurian Longmaxi formations in the Sichuan Basin and its surrounding areas are investigated through experiments under high temperature and high pressure,including petrophysical properties analyses,triaxial stress test and isothermal adsorption of methane experiment.(1)The deep shale reservoirs drop significantly in porosity and permeability compared with shallower shale reservoirs,and contain mainly free gas.(2)With higher deviatoric stress and axial strain,the deep shale reservoirs have higher difficulty fracturing.(3)Affected by structural location and morphology,fracture characteristics,geofluid activity stages and intensity,deep shale gas reservoirs have more complicated preservation conditions.(4)To achieve the commercial development of deep shale gas reservoirs,deepening geological understanding is the basis,and exploring reservoir simulation technology befitting the geological features is the key.(5)The siliceous shale and limestone-bearing siliceous shale in the Metabolograptus persculptus-Parakidograptus acuminatus zones(LM1-LM3 graptolite zones)are the high-production intervals for deep shale gas and the most favorable landing targets for horizontal drilling.Deeps water areas such as Jiaoshiba,Wulong,Luzhou and Changning with deep shale reservoirs over 10 m thickness are the most favorable areas for deep shale gas enrichment.It is recommended to carry out exploration and development practice in deep-water shale gas areas deposited deep with burial depth no more than 5000 m where the geological structure is simple and the shale thickness in the LM1-LM3 graptolite zone is greater than 10 m.It is better to increase the lateral length of horizontal wells,and apply techniques including high intensity of perforations,large volume of proppant,far-field and near-wellbore diversions to maximize the stimulated deep reservoir volume.

Formation, preservation and connectivity control of organic pores in shale

In view of strong heterogeneity and complex formation and evolution of organic pores,field emission scanning electron microscopy(FESEM),Raman spectrum and fluid injection+CT/SEM imaging technology were used to study the macerals,organic pores and connectivity of organic pores in the lower Paleozoic organic-rich shale samples from Southern China.Combined with the mechanism of hydrocarbon generation and expulsion and pore forming mechanism of organic matter-based activated carbon,the relationships between organic pore development and the organic matter type,hydrocarbon generation process,diagenesis and pore pressure were explored to reveal the controlling factors of the formation,preservation and connectivity of organic pores in shale.(1)The generation of organic pores goes on through the whole hydrocarbon generation process,and is controlled by the type,maturity and decomposition of organic matter;the different hydrocarbon generation components and differential hydrocarbon-generation evolution of kerogen and solid asphalt lead to different pore development characteristics;organic pores mainly develop in solid bitumen and hydrogen-rich kerogen.(2)The preservation of organic pores is controlled by maturity and diagenesis,including the steric hindrance effect of in-situ hydrocarbon retention,rigid mineral framework formed by recrystallization,the coupling mechanism of pore-fluid pressure and shale brittleness-ductility transition.(3)The Ro of 4.0%is the maturity threshold of organic pore extinction,the shale layers with Ro larger than 3.5%have high risk for shale gas exploration,these shale layers have low gas contents,as they were in an open state before uplift,and had high hydrocarbon expulsion efficiency and strong aromatization,thus having the"congenital deficiency"of high maturity and pore densification.(4)The pores in the same organic matter particle have good connectivity;and the effective connectivity between different organic matter pores and inorganic pores and fractures depends on the abundance and distribution of organic matter,and development degree of pores and fractures in the shale;the accumulation,preservation and laminar distribution of different types of organic matter in high abundance is the prerequisite for the development and connection of organic pores,grain margin fractures and bedding fractures in reservoir.

Sequence stratigraphy and lithofacies paleogeographic evolution of Katian Stage-Aeronian Stage in southern Sichuan Basin,SW China

Based on the lithologies,sedimentary structures,graptolite zones,inorganic geochemical characteristics,electrical data of 110 shale gas wells in southern Sichuan Basin and the mineral quantitative analysis technology of scanning electron microscope,the stratigraphic sequences of the Upper Ordovician Katian Stage-Himantian Stage-Silurian Rhuddanian Stage-Aeronian Stage are divided,the sedimentary characteristics and fourth-order sequence evolution are analyzed.The target layer can be divided into two sequences,namely SQ1 and SQ2.According to Ordovician-Silurian sedimentary background,the gamma value of the target layer and U/Th,5 maximum flooding surfaces and 12 system tracts are identified.According to system tracts and their combinations,eight fourth-order sequences are identified,namely,Pss1-Pss8 from old to new.The development period and scale of dominant shale facies from Katian stage to Aeronian stage in southern Sichuan are restored.The best-quality dolomite/calcite-bearing siliceous shale facies,siliceous shale facies,clay-bearing siliceous shale facies and feldspar-bearing siliceous shale facies mainly occur in Pss3-Pss5 of Weiyuan,Western Chongqing and Luzhou,Pss6 of Western Changning-Northern Luzhou-Central Western Chongqing and Pss3-Pss4 of Changning.The siliceous clay shale facies second in quality mainly occurs in Pss6 of Southern Luzhou-Changning area(excluding Western Changning area),Pss7 of Eastern Weiyuan-Northern Western Chongqing-Southern Luzhou and Pss8 of Northern Luzhou-Weiyuan-Western Chongqing.The fourth-order sequence evolution model of Katian stage-Aeronian stage in southern Sichuan is established.During the depositional period of Pss1-Pss8,the sea level had six regressions and five transgressions,and the first transgression SQ2-MFS1 after glaciation was the largest flooding surface.

Effects of astronomical orbital cycle and volcanic activity on organic carbon accumulation during Late Ordovician–Early Silurian in the Upper Yangtze area, South China

Based on field outcrop data,the effects of cyclic change of astronomical orbit and volcanic activity on organic carbon accumulation during the Late Ordovician-Early Silurian in the Upper Yangtze area were studied using cyclostratigraphic and geochemical methods.d13 C and chemical index of alteration(CIA)were used to filter the astronomical orbit parameters recorded in sediments.It is found that the climate change driven by orbital cycle controls the fluctuations of sea level at different scales,obliquity forcing climate changes drive thermohaline circulation(THC)of the ocean,and THC-induced bottom currents transport nutrient-laden water from high latitude regions to the surface water of low-latitude area.Hence,THC is the main dynamic mechanism of organic-carbon supply.The marine productivity indexes of Ba/Al and Ni/Al indicate that volcanic activities had limited effect on marine productivity but had great influences on organic carbon preservation efficiency in late Hirnantian(E4).Paleo-ocean redox environmental indicators Th/U,V/Cr and V/(V+Ni)show that there is a significant correlation between volcanism and oxygen content in Paleo-ocean,so it is inferred that volcanisms controlled the organic carbon preservation efficiency by regulating oxygen content in Paleo-ocean,and the difference in volcanism intensity in different areas is an important factor for the differential preservation efficiency of organic carbon.The organic carbon input driven by orbital cycle and the preservation efficiency affected by volcanisms worked together to control the enrichment of organic carbon in the Middle–Upper Yangtze region.

Depositional environment of shale in Wufeng and Longmaxi Formations, Sichuan Basin

Formation of organic-rich shale was controlled by depositional processes and environment condition.According to petrology,mineralogy,fossil composition and sedimentary structure,seven lithofacies of shale were identified in the Wufeng Formation to Longmaxi Formation,e.g.,siliceous shale,silty shale,argillaceous shale,calcareous shale,shell-bearing argillaceous limestone/calcareous mudstone,siltstonefine sandstone and bentonite.For shale in the Wufeng and Longmaxi Formations,the depositional mode was not only the suspension deposition under the low-energy hydrodynamic condition,but also the biogenic deposition,the storm deposition and the bottom current deposition indicated by large amount of siliceous biological fossils,biological detritus with size graded structure,silt laminations,lenticular bedding,ripple cross-bedding and other sedimentary structures.Trace element analysis suggested that the siliceous shale in theWufeng Formation and the lower part of Longmaxi Formation was developed in the oxygen-dysoxic/anoxic depositional environment,which was rich in organic matters;then due to influence of the sea level gradually decline and bottom current,the silty and argillaceous shales were formed,and the oxygen-dysoxic/anoxic depositional environment was destroyed,gradually leading to the worse preservation condition of organic matter.

Microscopic pore-fracture configuration and gas-filled mechanism of shale reservoirs in the western Chongqing area,Sichuan Basin,China

Taking the Upper Ordovician Wufeng Formation to Lower Silurian Longmaxi Formation shale reservoirs in western Chongqing area as the study target,the argon ion polishing scanning electron microscope and nuclear magnetic resonance(NMR)experiments of different saturated wetting media were carried out.Based on the image processing technology and the results of gas desorption,the pore-fracture configuration of the shale reservoirs and its influence on gas-filled mechanism were analyzed.(1)The reservoir space includes organic pores,inorganic pores and micro-fractures and there are obvious differences between wells in the development characteristics of micro-fractures;the organic pores adjacent to the micro-fractures are poorly developed,while the inorganic pores are well preserved.(2)According to the type,development degree and contact relationship of organic pore and micro-fracture,the pore-fracture configuration of the shale reservoir is divided into four types.(3)Based on the differences in NMR T_(2) spectra of shale samples saturated with oil and water,an evaluation parameter of pore-fracture configuration was constructed and calculated.The smaller the parameter,the better the pore-fracture configuration is.(4)The shale reservoir with good pore-fracture configuration has well-developed organic pores,high porosity,high permeability and high gas content,while the shale reservoir with poor pore-fracture configuration has micro-fractures developed,which improves the natural gas conductivity and leads to low porosity and gas content of the reservoir.(5)Based on pore-fracture configuration,from the perspective of organic matter generating hydrocarbon,micro-fracture providing migration channel,three types of micro gas-filled models of shale gas were established.

Deciphering the upper ordovician Wufeng siliceous shale depositional environments(Wuxi,NE Chongqing)based on multi-proxy record

Based on stratigraphic variations of petrology,geochemistry(major,trace elements),and pyrite framboids,we study the sedimentary environment of siliceous rocks of the Wufeng Formation in Wuxi,Northeastern Chongqing,China.Coupled Al2O3/(Al2O3þFe2O3),SiO2/Al2O3,with AleFeeMn values indicate that Wufeng Formation are deposited in a continental margin and influenced by detrital input.UEF-MoEF and V/CreU/Th cross-plots suggest that the siliceous shale was formed in dysoxic to anoxic conditions.Redox proxies imply that the lower,the middle to upper,and the top part of the Wufeng sediments were deposited in an anoxic,dysoxic and oxic environment,respectively.Accordingly,the average size of pyrite framboids are gradually increased from bottom to top,showing that increased oxidisability.A complete vibratory third-order cycle of sea level fluctuations during the Wufeng deposition can be identified.During Wufeng to Longmaxi transition,the sedimentary environment exhibits a short-scale oscillatory pattern and was probably transformed from an outer shelf to inner shelf.Coupled multi-proxies are considered more reliable proxies for deciphering redox conditions in fine-grained sediment.

Dispositional characteristics of Ordovician Wufeng Formation and Silurian Longmaxi Formation in Sichuan Basin and its adjacent areas

According to data of gas wells and typical sections of Wufeng Formation and Longmaxi Formation in Sichuan Basin,shale of various graptolite zones were analyzed to determine depositional environment,lithology and thickness characteristics of the graptolite shale interval of WF2-WF3 in the lower part of Wufeng Formation,the graptolite shale interval of WF4 in Guanyinqiao Member of Wufeng Formation and the graptolite shale interval of LM1-LM4 in the bottom of Longmaxi Formation,and characteristics of shale horizontal distribution were also investigated.During the depositional period of the graptolite shale interval of WF2-WF3,the study area was less affected by the Guangxi movement,the depositional environment was the deep water of open sea,where black shale was mainly deposited;the sedimentation center was developed in northeast Guizhou-northeast Sichuan and south Sichuan,the maximum thickness was from 4 to 6 m in the sedimentation center.During the depositional period of the graptolite shale interval of WF4,the depositional environment in the study area changed greatly due to global sea level fall and enhanced Guangxi movement;the central Sichuan paleouplift,the central Guizhou paleouplift and the Jiangnan-Xuefeng palaeouplift were further expanded,and the area of the sedimentary basin decreased;the depositional environment was mainly carbonate bioclastic shoal of shallow sea,and partially deep sea which only was distributed in the Shizhu-Fuling-Wuxi area in east and northeast Sichuan and the Gongxian-Yongchuan area in south Sichuan;sediments of shallow water were dominated by limestone and argillaceous limestone with abundant Hirnantia,sediments of deep water were dominated by calcareous mudstone and shale with Hirnantia.During the depositional period of the graptolite shale interval of LM1-LM4,due to rise of global sea level and Guangxi movement,the sedimentary area was larger than that in the depositional period of Guanyinqiao Member,and the sedimentary environment mainly was stagnant deepwater;thickness of black shale in the graptolite shale interval of LM1-LM4 was large,and the maximum thickness was over 20 m.Furthermore,control of the central Sichuan paleouplift,the central Guizhou paleouplift and the Jiangnan-Xuefeng paleouplift on black shale was discussed,and control of the Zhiliujing underwater highland/uplift,Huayingshan highland and Dingshan highland as well as western Hubei-Hunan underwater highland/uplift on shale deposition and preservation was also investigated.

Characteristics of shale gas reservoirs in Wufeng Formation and Longmaxi Formation in Well WX2,northeast Chongqing

To further understand shale reservoir characteristics of Wufeng Formation and Longmaxi Formation in the Wuxi area,northeast Chongqing,based on drilling data of Well WX2,and taking the graptolite biostratigraphy as the standard marker of stratigraphic division and comparison,the geochemistry,petrology,reservoir space and properties of organic-rich black shale were well investigated,and its gasbearing capacity and controlling factors were also analyzed.The result shows that in the Wufeng Formation and Longmaxi Formation of Well WX2,the organic-rich shale is 89.8 m thick and is characterized by good kerogen type,high organic abundance,moderate maturity and favorable hydrocarbongeneration condition,and the graptolite sequence is developed completely and continuously;the organic abundance is influenced by depositional rate,and the slow depositional rate is favorable for accumulation of organic matter in the black graptolite shale;from top to bottom,content of siliceous minerals increases and content of clay minerals decrease,therefore the brittleness increases;the organicrich siliceous shale and clay siliceous shale are favorable lithofacies for development of shale reservoirs;the nanopore is dominated by the parallel-plate pore with four open sides and has good connectivity;the pore size distribution curve has the multimodal characteristic,and the pore diameter mainly is in the range of 0.42e0.62 nm and the range of 3e5 nm;organic pores and interlayer pores of clay minerals make the greatest contribution to the total pore volume,while pores of brittle minerals have the least contribution;from top to bottom,organic pores gradually increase while interlayer pores of clay minerals gradually decrease;the on-site core gas content exceeds 8 m3/t,and the gas-bearing capacity is jointly controlled by hydrocarbon generation,reservoir and preservation conditions;and the WF2-LM6 biozone of the Katian to the early Aeronian is the high-quality shale reservoir,where the LM1 biozone of the Hirnantian was the best“sweet spot”which is the target of horizontal well drilling.

Quartz crystallinity index:New quantitative evidence for biogenic silica of the Late Ordovician to Early Silurian organic-rich shale in the Sichuan Basin and adjacent areas,China

Quartz crystallinity index(QCI)was used to reflect the crystallisation of silica in the Late Ordovician Wufeng(WF)and Early Silurian Longmaxi(LM)Formation shale,as well as the airborne volcanic ash-derived silica in the Lucaogou Formation tuffaceous shale,to distinguish the two types of silica.The silica in different graptolite biozones exhibited different crystallisation.The WF2–3,LM1–4 graptolite biozones showed obviously lower QCI values than the LM5–9 graptolite biozones and the Lucaogou Formation samples.The graptolite organisms played the role of adsorption,fixation,and precipitation in silicon accumulation and enrichment in stratum.The biogenic origin caused the poorest quartz crystallisation in WF2–3 and LM1–4 graptolite biozones samples.The airborne volcanic ash-derived silica in the Lucaogou Formation tuffaceous shale exhibited relatively poor quartz crystallisation because of weaker diagenesis intensity.Generally,although the WF2–3 and LM1–4 graptolite biozones underwent strong diagenesis and contained a small amount of detrital quartz,the silica still exhibited lower QCI values than the airborne volcanic ash-derived silica in the Lucaogou Formation tuffaceous shale.The biogenic silica crystallisation was much poorer than that of the airborne volcanic ash-derived silica.QCI is an effective quantitative index to demonstrate the biogenic silica in the organic-rich and silica-rich shale.