Investigation of the sodium storage mechanism of iron fluoride hydrate cathodes using X-ray absorption spectroscopy and mossbauer spectroscopy

Elucidation of a reaction mechanism is the most critical aspect for designing electrodes for highperformance secondary batteries.Herein,we investigate the sodium insertion/extraction into an iron fluoride hydrate(FeF_(3)·0.5H_(2)O)electrode for sodium-ion batteries(SIBs).The electrode material is prepared by employing an ionic liquid 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium-tetrafluoroborate,which serves as a reaction medium and precursor for F^(-)ions.The crystal structure of FeF_(3)·0.5H_(2)O is observed as pyrochlore type with large open 3-D tunnels and a unit cell volume of 1129A^(3).The morphology of FeF_(3)·0.5H_(2)O is spherical shape with a mesoporous structure.The microstructure analysis reveals primary particle size of around 10 nm.The FeF_(3)·0.5H_(2)O cathode exhibits stable discharge capacities of 158,210,and 284 mA h g^(-1) in three different potential ranges of 1.5-4.5,1.2-4.5,and 1.0-4.5 V,respectively at 0.05 C rate.The specific capacities remained stable in over 50 cycles in all three potential ranges,while the rate capability was best in the potential range of 1.5-4.5 V.The electrochemical sodium storage mechanism is studied using X-ray absorption spectroscopy,indicating higher conversion at a more discharged state.Ex-situ M?ssbauer spectroscopy strengthens the results for reversible reduction/oxidation of Fe.These results will be favorable to establish high-performance cathode materials with selective voltage window for SIBs.

In situ studies of energy-related electrochemical reactions using Raman and X-ray absorption spectroscopy

Electrochemical energy conversion technologies involving processes such as water splitting and O_(2)/CO_(2) reduction,provide promising solutions for addressing global energy scarcity and minimizing adverse environmental impact.However,due to a lack of an in-depth understanding of the reaction mechanisms and the nature of the active sites,further advancement of these techniques has been limited by the development of efficient and robust catalysts.Therefore,in situ characterization of these electrocatalytic processes under working conditions is essential.In this review,recent applications of in situ Raman spectroscopy and X-ray absorption spectroscopy for various nano-and single-atom catalysts in energy-related reactions are summarized.Notable cases are highlighted,including the capture of oxygen-containing intermediate species formed during the reduction of oxygen and oxidation of hydrogen,and the detection of catalyst structural transformations occurring with the change in potential during the evolution of oxygen and reduction of CO_(2).Finally,the challenges and outlook for advancing in situ spectroscopic technologies to gain a deeper fundamental understanding of these energy-related electrocatalytic processes are discussed.

Transition-metal redox evolution and its effect on thermal stability of LiNixCoyMnzO_(2) based on synchrotron soft X-ray absorption spectroscopy

Based on the synchrotron soft X-ray absorption spectroscopy experiments,the fundamental electronic structures of layered Li NixCoyMnzO_(2)(NCM)are investigated systematically and the data of transitionmetal(TM)L-and O K-edges spectra are collected.Distribution of Ni ions under different oxidation states is evaluated according to linear combination fit.It is found that the ratio of Ni^(4+)expands with the increase of Ni since it dominates in charge compensation during charging,and that the existence of Ni^(3+)is nearly negligible in delithiated NCM.The valence state of Co also strongly depends on Ni content,the perceptible position shift of Co L_(3)-edge absorption peak towards higher energy in Ni-rich material agrees well with the small voltage plateau at around 4.2 V.The stability of Mn is verified as no obvious spectral change with the Mn L-edge is observed.Moreover,as Ni content rises,the O 2p holes near the Femi level increases with higher oxidation state of Ni,indicating the enhanced hybridization of O 2p-TM 3 d.Delithiated NCMs with higher Ni content are prior to lose electron existing in highly hybridized Ni3 dO 2 p bands upon heating,which accounts for the pronounced O_(2)release in phase transitions and the deterioration in thermal stability.These detailed observation of the electronic structure evolution is one of the key ingredients to improving the electrochemical and thermal performance of NCM.

Local Structure Analysis of Lead Zinc Niobate-Barium Titanate Ceramic by X-Ray Absorption Spectroscopy and Density Functional Calculation

The local structure of an alternative Pb（Zn1/3Nb2/3）O3-based perovskite ceramic is investigated. The 0.07BaTiO33-0.93Pb（Zn1/3Nb2/3）O3 ceramic is synthesized using a combination of Zn3Nb2O8 B-site precursor and BaTiO33 perovskite phase stabilizer. Then, x-ray absorption spectroscopy and density functional theory are employed to calculate the local structure configuration and formation energy of the prepared samples. Ba2＋ is found to replace Pb2＋ in AA-site with Zn2＋ occupying BB-site in Pb（Zn1/3Nb2/3）O3, while in the neighboring structure, Ti4＋4＋ replaces Nb5＋5＋ in BB-site with Pb2＋2＋ occupying AA-site. With the substitution of BaTiO33 in Pb（Zn1/3Nb2/3）O3, the bond length between Zn2＋ and Pb2＋ is longer than that of the typical perovskite phase of Pb（Zn1/3Nb2/3）O3. This indicates the key role of BaTiO33 in decreasing the steric hindrance of Pb2＋ lone pair, and the mutual interactions between Pb2＋ lone pair and Zn2＋ and the formation energy is seen to decrease. This finding of the formation energy and local structure configuration relationship can further extend a fundamental understanding of the role of BaTiO33 in stabilizing the perovskite phase in PbZn13Nb23O3-based materials, which in turn will lead to an improved preparation technique for desired electrical properties.

X-Ray Absorption Spectroscopy Analysis of Lead Species Adsorbed on Various Oxides from High pH Solution

Lead dissolved in water must be removed in order not to cause diseases, especially from high pH aqueous solution. Various oxides having high specific surface area are often applied to remove lead in water media. To improve removal ability for lead species, it is necessary to understand the adsorbed structure of lead species on oxides. At first, the adsorption behavior of lead from high pH solution in the presence of Ca2+ and Na+ was compared. Lead and calcium species were adsorbed up to the monolayer, and the adsorption isotherm was analyzed as Langmuir-type adsorption. In the presence of Ca2+, the amount of removed lead was reduced. To clarify this influence of Ca2+, X-ray absorption spectroscopy was adopted. It was for the first time revealed that lead species at pH > 12 and pH < 10.5 differed, and that lead species adsorbed on various oxides had a similar structure.

Alignment of Vertically Grown Carbon Nanostructures Studied by X-Ray Absorption Spectroscopy

X-Ray Absorption Spectroscopy (XAS) on the carbon K edge of carbon nanostructures (nanotubes, nanofibers, nanowalls) is reported here. They are grown on plain SiO2 (8 nm thick)/Si(100) substrates by a Plasma and Hot Filaments-enhanced Catalytic Chemical Vapor Deposition (PE HF CCVD) process. The morphology and the nature of these carbon nanostructures are characterized by SEM, TEM and Raman spectroscopy. According to conditions of catalyst preparation and DC HF CCVD process, carbon nanotubes (CNTs), carbon nanofibers (CNFs), carbon nanowalls (CNWs), carbon nanoparticles (CNPs) with different orientation of the graphene plans or shells can be prepared. From the angular dependence of the incident light and geometrical morphology of the nanostructures, wide variations of the C K-edge intensity of the transitions to the empty π* and σ* states occur. A full lineshape analysis of the XAS spectra has been carried out using a home-made software, allowing estimating the relative proportion of π* and σ* transitions. A geometrical model of the angular dependence with the incidence angle of the light and the morphology of the carbon nanostructures is derived. With normalization to the HOPG (Highly Oriented Pyrolytic Graphite graphite) reference case, a degree of alignment can be extracted which is representative of the localized orientation of the graphitic carbon π bonds, accounting not only for the overall orientation, but also for local defects like impurities incorporation, structural defects ... This degree of alignment shows good agreement with SEM observations. Thus CNTs films display degrees of alignment around 50%, depending on the occurrence of defects in the course of the growth, whereas no special alignment can be detected with CNFs and CNPs, and a weak one (about 20%) is detected on CNWs.

In Situ X-ray Absorption Spectroscopy Studies of Nanoscale Electrocatalysts

Nanoscale electrocatalysts have exhibited promising activity and stability,improving the kinetics of numerous electrochemical reactions in renewable energy systems such as electrolyzers,fuel cells,and metal-air batteries.Due to the size effect,nano particles with extreme small size have high surface areas,complicated morphology,and various surface terminations,which make them different from their bulk phases and often undergo restructuring during the reactions.These restructured materials are hard to probe by conventional ex-situ characterizations,thus leaving the true reaction centers and/or active sites difficult to determine.Nowadays,in situ techniques,particularly X-ray absorption spectroscopy(XAS),have become an important tool to obtain oxidation states,electronic structure,and local bonding environments,which are critical to investigate the electrocatalysts under real reaction conditions.In this review,we go over the basic principles of XAS and highlight recent applications of in situ XAS in studies of nanoscale electrocatalysts.

Local structural evolutions of CuO/ZnO/Al2O3 catalyst for methanol synthesis under operando conditions studied by in situ quick X-ray absorption spectroscopy

In situ quick X-ray absorption spectroscopy(QXAFS) at the Cu and Zn K-edge under operando conditions has been used to unravel the Cu/Zn interaction and identify possible active site of CuO/ZnO/Al_2O_3 catalyst for methanol synthesis. In this work, the catalyst, whose activity increases with the reaction temperature and pressure, was studied at calcined, reduced, and reacted conditions. TEM and EDX images for the calcined and reduced catalysts showed that copper was distributed uniformly at both conditions. TPR profile revealed two reduction peaks at 165 and 195 °C for copper species in the calcined catalyst. QXAFS results demonstrated that the calcined form consisted mainly of a mixed Cu O and Zn O, and it was progressively transformed into Cu metal particles and dispersed Zn O species as the reduction treatment. It was demonstrated that activation of the catalyst precursor occurred via a Cu^+intermediate, and the active catalyst predominantly consisted of metallic Cu and Zn O evenunder higher pressures. Structure of the active catalyst did not change with the temperature or pressure, indicating that the role of the Zn was mainly to improve Cu dispersion.This indicates the potential of QXAFS method in studying the structure evolutions of catalysts in methanol synthesis.

In-situ high-energy-resolution X-ray absorption spectroscopy for UO2 oxidation at SSRF

Based on the high-energy-resolution fluorescence spectrometer on the BL14W1 beamline at Shanghai Synchrotron Radiation Facility,an in-situ high-energyresolution X-ray absorption spectroscopy technique,with an in-situ heating cell,was developed.The high-energyresolution fluorescence detection for X-ray absorption near-edge spectroscopy(HERFD-XANES) was tested in a UO_2 oxidation experiment to measure the UL_3-edge,with higher signal-to-noise ratio and higher-energy-resolution than conventional XANES.The technique has potential application for in-situ study of uranium-based materials.

STRUCTURAL DETERMINATION OF TITANIUM-OXIDE NANOPARTICLES BY X-RAY ABSORPTION SPECTROSCOPY

As a potential application of titanium-oxide nanoparticles, it is extremely important to investigate a detailed picture of the surface and interior structural properties of nanocrystalline materials, such as rutile and anatase with diameters 7.0 and 4.5nm, respectively. X-ray absorption spectroscopy has been used to identify the local Ti environment and related electronic structure. We combine the experimental results at the Ti edge in both bulk and nano-crystals to determine the lattice distortion in terms of differently characteristic preedge features and the variation in the multiple-scattering region of X-ray absorption near-edge structure (XANES) spectra. The relationship between the transition peaks and the surface-to volume ratio is also discussed.

Charge compensation and capacity fading in LiCoO2 at high voltage investigated by soft x-ray absorption spectroscopy

In order to obtain an in-depth insight into the mechanism of charge compensation and capacity fading in LiCoO2, the evolution of electronic structure of LiCoO2 at different cutoff voltages and after different cycles are studied by soft x-ray absorption spectroscopy in total electron（TEY） and fluorescence（TFY） detection modes, which provide surface and bulk information, respectively. The spectra of Co L2,3-edge indicate that Co contributes to charge compensation below 4.4 V.Combining with the spectra of O K-edge, it manifests that only O contributes to electron compensation above 4.4 V with the formation of local O 2 p holes both on the surface and in the bulk, where the surficial O evolves more remarkably. The evolution of the O 2 p holes gives an explanation to the origin of O2^-or even O2. A comparison between the TEY and TFY of O K-edge spectra of LiCoO2 cycled in a range from 3 V to 4.6 V indicates both the structural change in the bulk and aggregation of lithium salts on the electrode surface are responsible for the capacity fading. However, the latter is found to play a more important role after many cycles.

Multiple scattering approach to X-ray absorption spectroscopy

In this paper we present the state of the art of the theoretical background needed for analyzing X-ray absorption spectra in the whole energy range. The multiple-scattering (MS) theory is presented in detail with some applications on real systems. We also describe recent progress in performing geometrical fitting of the XANES (X-ray absorption near-edge structure) energy region and beyond using a full multiple-scattering approach.

Understanding synergistic catalysis on Pt–Cu diatomic sites via operando X-ray absorption spectroscopy in sulfur redox reactions

Sulfur redox reactions render lithium–sulfur(Li–S)batteries with an energy density of>500Whkg−1 but suffer a low practical capacity and fast capacity fade due to sluggish sulfur redox reaction(SRR)kinetics,which lies in the complex reaction process that involves a series of reaction intermediates and proceeds via a cascade reaction.Here,we present a Pt–Cu dual-atom catalyst(Pt/Cu-NG)as an electrocatalyst for sulfur redox reactions.Pt/Cu-NG enabled the rapid conversion of soluble polysulfide intermediates into insoluble Li2S2/Li2S,and consequently,it prevented the accumulation and shuttling of lithium polysulfides,thus outperforming the corresponding single-atom catalysts(SACs)with individual Pt or Cu sites.Operando X-ray absorption spectroscopy and density functional theory calculations revealed that a synergistic effect between the paired Pt and Cu atoms modifies the electronic structure of the Pt site through d-orbital interactions,resulting in an optimal moderate interaction of the metal atom with the different sulfide species.This optimal interaction enhanced charge transfer kinetics and promoted sulfur redox reactions.Our work thus provides important insights on the atomic scale into the synergistic effects operative in dual-atom catalysts and will thus pave the way to electrocatalysts with enhanced efficiency for high-performance Li–S batteries.

Application of X-ray absorption spectroscopy in carbon-supported electrocatalysts

Breakthroughs in energy storage and conversion devices depend heavily on the exploration of low-cost and high-performance materials.Carbon-supported electrocatalysts with dimensional varieties have recently attracted significant attention due to their strong structural flexibility and easy accessibility.Nevertheless,understanding the connection between their electronic,structural properties,and catalytic performance must remain a top priority.Synchrotron radiation(SR)X-ray absorption spectroscopy(XAS)techniques,including hard XAS and soft XAS,are recognized as efficient and comprehensive platforms for probing the surface,interface,and bulk electronic structure of elements of interest in the materials community.In the past decade,the flourishing development of materials science and advanced characterization technologies have led to a deeper understanding at different temporal,longitudinal,and spatial scales.In this review,we briefly describe the concept of XAS techniques and summarize their recent progress in addressing scientific questions on carbon-supported electrocatalysts through the development of advanced instruments and experimental methods.We then discuss the remaining challenges and potential research directions in nextgeneration materials frontiers,and suggest challenges and perspectives for shedding light on the structure–activity relationship.

The state of gold in phases of the Cu-Fe-S system:In situ X-ray absorption spectroscopy study

Chalcopyrite and bornite are the main Au-bearing minerals at Cu porphyry deposits,volcanogenic massive sulfide(VMS)deposits,Cu-Ni deposits of the mafic magmatic complexes,and ores of submarine sulfide edifices.Bornite and intermediate solid solutions with wide compositional variations(bnss and iss–high-temperature chalcopyrite,correspondingly),which can scavenge economic concentrations of Au,appear in the Cu-Fe-S system at ore-forming conditions.However,the state of Au in bnss and iss is yet unknown.To solve this conundrum,we synthesized samples with net chemical composition of bnss and iss,studied them by in situ X–ray absorption spectroscopy(XAS),and used the experimental data to explain the Au distribution among natural ore-forming minerals.The sulfide samples were obtained at 495–700℃ in Au-saturated system by means of salt flux method.The bnss contained1.2–1.6 log units more Au than iss:up to 18 wt.%Au in bnss vs 0.4 wt.%Au in iss at 700C.An increase of temperature resulted in the sharp increase of Au concentration in both phases,1 log unit per 100℃ at f(S2)close to S_((l)) saturation.Analysis of Au L_(3)-edge spectra recorded at 25–675℃ revealed that at 25℃ Au exists mainly in the metallic state.At t>500℃ the spectral features of Audisappear,and “chemically bound”Au predominates.The Au form of occurrence in the iss field is interpreted as Au-bearing clusters with a stromeyerite-like(CuAgS)structure.Digenite Cu_(2–x)S and bnss contain Au in a mixture of stromeyeritelike and petrovskaite-like(Au_(0.8)Ag_(1.2)S)clusters.The chemical composition of both forms is close to CuAuS,where the nearest Au neighbors are two S atoms at R_(Au-S)=2.34–2.36Å.Results of the present study allow to determine the state of Au and its concentration in the main Cu-bearing minerals of sulfide ores as a function of the T-f(S_(2))-compositional parameters.Due to the sharp increase of the CuAuS clusters stability with increasing temperature,in high-temperature ores formed at t>350℃ Au enriches Cubearing minerals in comparison with Cu-free or Cu-deficient ones.As a result,in these ores native gold,being a product of decomposition of the Au-bearing clusters,is associated with Cu-rich minerals–chalcopyrite,bornite,digenite,chalcocite.

Spatial sensitivity to absorption changes for various near-infrared spectroscopy methods:A compendium review

This compendium review focuses on the spatial distribution of sensitivity to localized absorption changes in optically diffuse media,particularly for measurements relevant to near-infrared spectroscopy.The three temporal domains,continuous wave,frequency domain,and time domain,each obtain different optical data types whose changes may be related to effective homogeneous changes in the absorption coefficient.Sensitivity is the relationship between a localized perturbation and the recovered effective homogeneous absorption change.Therefore,spatial sensitivity maps representing the perturbation location can be generated for the numerous optical data types in the three temporal domains.The review first presents a history of the past 30 years of work investigating this sensitivity in optically diffuse media.These works are experimental and theoretical,presenting one-,two-,and three-dimensional sensitivity maps for different Near-Infrared Spectroscopy methods,domains,and data types.Following this history,we present a compendium of sensitivity maps organized by temporal domain and then data type.This compendium provides a valuable tool to compare the spatial sensitivity of various measurement methods and parameters in one document.Methods for one to generate these maps are provided in Appendix A,including the code.This historical review and comprehensive sensitivity map compendium provides a single source researchers may use to visualize,investigate,compare,and generate sensitivity to localized absorption change maps.

Quick-scanning X-ray absorption fine structure beamline at SSRF

The layout and characteristics of the hard X-ray spectroscopy beamline(BL11B)at the Shanghai synchrotron radiation facility are described herein.BL11B is a bending-magnet beamline dedicated to conventional and millisecond-scale quick-scanning X-ray absorption fine structures.It is equipped with a cylindrical collimating mirror,a double-crystal monochromator comprising Si(111)and Si(311),a channel-cut quick-scanning Si(111)monochromator,a toroidal focusing mirror,and a high harmonics rejection mirror.It can provide 5-30 keV of X-rays with a photon flux of~5×10^(11)photons/s and an energy resolution of~1.31×10^(-4)at 10 keV.The performance of the beamline can satisfy the demands of users in the fields of catalysis,materials,and environmental science.This paper presents an overview of the beamline design and a detailed description of its performance and capabilities.

In situ infrared, Raman and X-ray spectroscopy for the mechanistic understanding of hydrogen evolution reaction

Hydrogen production by water reduction reactions has received considerable attention because hydrogen is considered a clean-energy carrier,key for a sustainable energy future.Computational methods have been widely used to study the reaction mechanism of the hydrogen evolution reaction(HER),but the calculation results need to be supported by experimental results and direct evidence to confirm the mechanistic insights.In this review,we discuss the fundamental principles of the in situ spectroscopic strategy and a theoretical model for a mechanistic understanding of the HER.In addition,we investigate recent studies by in situ Fourier transform infrared(FTIR),Raman spectroscopy,and X-ray absorption spectroscopy(XAS) and cover new findings that occur at the catalyst-electrolyte interface during HER.These spectroscopic strategies provide practical ways to elucidate catalyst phase,reaction intermediate,catalyst-electrolyte interface,intermediate binding energy,metal valency state,and coordination environment during HER.

Dynamical investigation of tunable magnetism in Au@Ni-carbide nanocrystals by a combined soft and hard X-ray absorption spectroscopy

Nickel based magnetic nanocrystals have been widely applied in magnetic and catalytic facilities.Tunable magnetic properties of nickel can be easily obtained via non-magnetic doping or phase transformation.However,phase transformation from face centered cubic(fcc)to hexagonal close packed(hcp)induced magnetism adjustment of Ni are always confused with nickel carbide(Ni_(3)C),due to the similar atomic structures of hcp-Ni and Ni3C.Here,we present series of Au@Ni-carbide magnetic materials achieved from the controlled carbonation of Au@Ni core-shell structures,whose magnetism is tunable by adjusting the amount of carbon in the Ni layer.Ex-situ hard X-ray absorption spectroscopy(XAS)at the metal K edge and soft XAS at both metal L edge and carbon K edge provide solid evidence for the carbonation process from fcc-Ni to Ni_(x)C,rather than phase transformation to hcp-Ni.Further investigation reveals that the magnetism of the hybrids is mainly contributed from the residual fcc-Ni.The result represents an accurate and effective way to distinguish hexagonal Ni_(3)C from hcp-Ni,and provides the pathway to control magnetism of Ni-based materials for applications.

Unraveling Shuttle Effect and Suppression Strategy in Lithium/Sulfur Cells by In Situ/Operando X-ray Absorption Spectroscopic Characterization

The polysulfides shuttle effect represents a great challenge in achieving high capacity and long lifespan of lithium/sulfur(Li/S)cells.A comprehensive understanding of the shuttle-related sulfur speciation and diffusion process is vital for addressing this issue.Herein,we employed in situ/operando X-ray absorption spectroscopy(XAS)to trace the migration of polysulfides across the Li/S cells by precisely monitoring the sulfur chemical speciation at the cathodic electrolyte-separator and electrolyte-anode interfaces,respectively,in a real-time condition.After we adopted a shuttle-suppressing strategy by introducing an electrocatalytic layer of twinborn bismuth sulfide/bismuth oxide nanoclusters in a carbon matrix(BSOC),we found the Li/S cell showed greatly improved sulfur utilization and longer life span.The operando S Kedge XAS results revealed that the BSOC modification was bi-functional:trapping polysulfides and catalyzing conversion of sulfur species simultaneously.We elucidated that the polysulfide trapping-and-catalyzing effect of the BSOC electrocatalytic layer resulted in an effective lithium anode protection.Our results could offer potential stratagem for designing more advanced Li/S cells.