In Zanzibar, from the start of the pandemic in March 2020 to the time of sampling in December 2020, SARS-CoV-2 seroprevalence data was limited. We conducted a seroprevalence study to evaluate the magnitude of SARS-CoV...In Zanzibar, from the start of the pandemic in March 2020 to the time of sampling in December 2020, SARS-CoV-2 seroprevalence data was limited. We conducted a seroprevalence study to evaluate the magnitude of SARS-CoV-2 exposure among healthcare workers, school children, and people who attended general markets in Zanzibar. The objectives of the study were to analyse the total antibodies from selected higher-risk population groups in order to determine magnitude in SARS CoV-2 exposure. Blood samples were collected from eligible and consented participants (adults and children), and their serum was analyzed for total antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 using ELISA. A questionnaire was used to collect participants’ demographic and clinical data. The overall SARS-CoV-2 seroprevalence across all age groups was 33%, and a higher seroprevalence was observed in the 40 - 49 years’ age group relative to other ages as well as in those who attended markets. A runny nose (18.8% of participants) was the most frequently reported SARS-CoV-2 infection-related symptom. Multivariable analysis showed significantly higher odds of infection in people living in urban districts. The findings provide insight into SARS-CoV-2 infection among school children, health workers, and people who attended markets in Zanzibar in the early stages of the pandemic. Exposure in these groups might have been influenced by infection and prevention strategies taken by the government, as well as shopping behavior, school overcrowding, and population density in urban settings. The study had methodological limitations, including cross-sectional design. Further, well-designed, longitudinal studies are recommended to understand exposure and transmission at a population level.展开更多
Milk is one of the very important nutrients of human diet. The presence of toxic elements in milk may threaten the public health. This study reports the levels of Cadmium (Cd), Cobalt (Co) and Lead (Pb) in raw cow’s ...Milk is one of the very important nutrients of human diet. The presence of toxic elements in milk may threaten the public health. This study reports the levels of Cadmium (Cd), Cobalt (Co) and Lead (Pb) in raw cow’s milk collected from different areas of Zanzibar Island during March - May 2016. The samples of raw milk were analyzed by Thermo Scientific-Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer for quantitative determination of the metals in the matrix. The concentration of Co in this study ranged from ND at Mwanakwerekwe (MK1 and MK2) to a maximum of 0.004 mg/L at Mshelishelini (MS5) and Fuoni (F5) sites with mean concentration of 0.020 ± 0.003 mg/L for all sites. Concentration of Pb ranged between 0.05 - 0.51 mg/L at Fuoni (F7) and Mwanakwerekwe (MK1) respectively, with mean concentration of 0.263 ± 0.031 mg/L for all sites. However, Cd was only detected in one sample collected at Fuoni (F3) with a concentration of 0.001 mg/L. The results revealed that cow’s milk is contaminated with toxic metals, particularly Pb which exceeded the WHO maximum permissible level of 0.02 mg/L. The study furthermore sheds light on possible consequences to public health. It is recommended that, stakeholders especially in Zanzibar such as Zanzibar Food and Drug Authorities (ZFDA) and Zanzibar Bureau of Standards (ZBS) as well as researchers, use the findings of this study for policy making, future study plans, formulation of technical strategies to control milk contamination, risk assessment and develop new alternative methods to measure milk contamination even at a low detection limit for the sake of the consumers’ welfare before posing any serious effects to their health.展开更多
The Running Frogs(Kassina spp.) are members of the Hyperoliidae,a family that is restricted to sub-Saharan Africa.Although summary information exists on the amphibian fauna of Zanzibar,only K. maculata has been record...The Running Frogs(Kassina spp.) are members of the Hyperoliidae,a family that is restricted to sub-Saharan Africa.Although summary information exists on the amphibian fauna of Zanzibar,only K. maculata has been recorded on Unguja,the largest of the islands in Zanzibar.Recent field surveys conducted in Jozani-Chwaka National Park revealed the presence of a frog in the genus Kassina that differs from all known species and,based on current knowledge,is endemic to Zanzibar.A new running frog species of Kassina was discovered from Jozani-Chwaka National Park,Zanzibar,Tanzania in 2006.It is distinguished from other species in its genus,by an advertisement call,that is pulsed,展开更多
Samples of amaranth and cabbage from Zanzibar were analyzed for heavy metal concentrations using Energy Dispersive X-ray Fluorescence spectrometry (EDXRF) of Tanzania Atomic Energy Commission (TAEC) in Arusha. Thirty ...Samples of amaranth and cabbage from Zanzibar were analyzed for heavy metal concentrations using Energy Dispersive X-ray Fluorescence spectrometry (EDXRF) of Tanzania Atomic Energy Commission (TAEC) in Arusha. Thirty samples of amaranth and twenty five samples of cabbage were collected from four farms and two markets at Urban West Region in Zanzibar. The concentrations of Al, Cl, Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Zn, Cu, Ag, I, Br, Cd and Pb are presented and discussed. Amaranth had significant (P < 0.05) higher concentrations of Zn, Fe, Cr and Mn than cabbage, whilst Cd, Ni and Pb were significantly (P < 0.05) higher in cabbage than amaranth. Although the mean concentrations of the essential elements were in the range reported in literature, Pb and Cd were in concentrations above FAO/ WHO maximum tolerable limits.展开更多
Owing to health and security hazards posed by concentration of EMR (electromagnetic radiations) from wireless transmission devices such as antennas and WiFi, it is time for building specialists to consider EMR shieldi...Owing to health and security hazards posed by concentration of EMR (electromagnetic radiations) from wireless transmission devices such as antennas and WiFi, it is time for building specialists to consider EMR shielding in general designs. Such a venture needs understanding of shielding behavior of various building materials in their isolated and combined forms. While shielding properties of several industrial materials are known, much remains to be understood from traditional materials. This article contributes to the knowledge of SE (shielding effectiveness) of the latter materials. It has tested the buildings of the 19th CE STZ (Stone Town of Zanzibar). The coral stones, mud, and mangrove pole buildings of this historic town were found to be effective in shielding the radiations, nearly the same as renowned buildings of the Roman Empire.展开更多
The study employed the triangulation approach to investigate the impact of climate variability on selected socioeconomic indicators, particularly food production, health and education, and how much climate variability...The study employed the triangulation approach to investigate the impact of climate variability on selected socioeconomic indicators, particularly food production, health and education, and how much climate variability and its impact on those indicators was realized and understood among the women living in Jambiani community in Zanzibar. The study used the explanatory, sequential mixed method to collect, datasets related to Jambiani communities (i.e. from the women in Kibigija village), other climate data acquired from Tanzania Meteorological Authority (TMA), Ministries of Agriculture and Health and Southern District in Zanzibar. The results obtained from the analysis of both anecdotal (interview, questionnaire among others) data shows that climate variability was imminent in Jambiani communities between 2010 and 2015 and had a negative impact on food production, health and education. Further results revealed that women working in informal sectors are more vulnerable to climate impacts than women working in formal sectors due to less knowledge and techniques to mitigate/cope with climate variability impacts. Conclusively the study has shown that climate variability affects more women with less awareness of what is happening and how to cope with it, thus the study calls for new research work and increasing the awareness on the impacts of climate on human basic needs.展开更多
BackgroundZanzibar has made substantial progress in malaria control with vector control, improved diagnosis, and artemisinin-based combination therapy. Parasite prevalence in the population has remained around 1% but ...BackgroundZanzibar has made substantial progress in malaria control with vector control, improved diagnosis, and artemisinin-based combination therapy. Parasite prevalence in the population has remained around 1% but imported infections from mainland Tanzania contribute to sustained local transmission. Understanding travel patterns between mainland Tanzania and Zanzibar, and the risk of malaria infection, may help to control malaria importation to Zanzibar.MethodsA rolling cross-sectional survey linked to routine reactive case detection of malaria was carried out in Zanzibar between May 2017 and October 2018. Households of patients diagnosed with malaria at health facilities were surveyed and household members were tested for malaria using rapid diagnostic tests and a sub-sample by quantitative PCR (qPCR). Interviews elicited a detailed travel history of all household members who had travelled within the past two months, including trips within and outside of Zanzibar. We estimated the association of malaria infection with travel destinations in pre-defined malaria endemicity categories, trip duration, and other co-variates using logistic regression.ResultsOf 17,891 survey participants, 1177 (7%) reported a recent trip, of which 769 (65%) visited mainland Tanzania. Among travellers to mainland Tanzania with travel destination details and a qPCR result available, 241/378 (64%) reported traveling to districts with a ‘high’ malaria endemicity and for 12% the highest endemicity category was ‘moderate’. Travelers to the mainland were more likely to be infected with malaria parasites (29%, 108/378) than those traveling within Zanzibar (8%, 16/206) or to other countries (6%, 2/17). Among travellers to mainland Tanzania, those visiting highly endemic districts had a higher odds of being qPCR-positive than those who travelled only to districts where malaria-endemicity was classified as low or very low (adjusted odd ratio = 7.0, 95% confidence interval: 1.9–25.5). Among travellers to the mainland, 110/378 (29%) never or only sometimes used a mosquito net during their travel.ConclusionsStrategies to reduce malaria importation to Zanzibar may benefit from identifying population groups traveling to highly endemic areas in mainland Tanzania. Targeted interventions to prevent and clear infections in these groups may be more feasible than attempting to screen and treat all travellers upon arrival in Zanzibar.展开更多
Background:Efforts to control and eliminate schistosomiasis have accelerated over the past decade.As parasite burden,associated morbidity and egg excretion decrease,diagnosis with standard parasitological methods beco...Background:Efforts to control and eliminate schistosomiasis have accelerated over the past decade.As parasite burden,associated morbidity and egg excretion decrease,diagnosis with standard parasitological methods becomes harder.We assessed the robustness and performance of a real-time PCR(qPCR)approach in comparison with urine filtration microscopy and reagent strip testing for the diagnosis of Schistosoma haematobium infections of different intensities.Methods:The robustness of DNA isolation and qPCR was validated in eight laboratories from Europe and Africa.Subsequently,792 urine samples collected during cross-sectional surveys of the Zanzibar Elimination of Schistosomiasis Transmission(ZEST)project in 2012-2017 were examined with qPCR in 2018.Diagnostic sensitivity of the qPCR was calculated at different infection intensity categories,using urine filtration microscopy as reference test.Spearman's rank correlation between Ct-values and S.haematobium egg counts was assessed and Ct-value percentiles for infection intensity categories determined.Results:S.haematobium Dra1 DNA-positive samples were identified correctly in all eight laboratories.Examination of urine samples from Zanzibar revealed Dra1 DNA in 26.8%(212/792)by qPCR,S.haematobium eggs in 13.3%(105/792)by urine filtration,and microhaematuria in 13.8%(109/792)by reagent strips.Sensitivity of the qPCR increased with augmenting egg counts:80.6%(29/36)for counts between 1 and 4 eggs,83.3%(15/18)for counts between 5 and 9 eggs,100%(23/23)for counts between 10 and 49 eggs,and 96.4%(27/28)for counts of 50+eggs.There was a significant negative correlation between Ct-values and egg counts(Spearman's rho=-0.49,P<0.001).Seventy-five percent of the Ct-values were≥33 in the egg-negative category,<31 in the light intensity category,and<24 in the heavy intensity category.Conclusions:While the sensitiivity of the qPCR was^80%for very light intensity infections(egg counts<10),in general,the Dra1 based qPCR assay detected twice as many S.haematobium infections compared with classical parasitological tests.The qPCR is hence a sensitive,urine-based approach for S.haernatcbium diagnosis that can be used for impact assessment of schistosomiasis elimination programmes,individual diagnosis,and in improved format also for verification and certification of elimination.Trial registration:ISRCTN,ISRCTN48837681.Registered 05 September 2012-Retrospectively registered.展开更多
Aim of the study was to assess the physicochemical characteristics of rainwater at urban and rural(north B)Unguja.Twenty four(24)rainwater samples were analyzed for pH,electrical conductivity(EC)and total dissolved so...Aim of the study was to assess the physicochemical characteristics of rainwater at urban and rural(north B)Unguja.Twenty four(24)rainwater samples were analyzed for pH,electrical conductivity(EC)and total dissolved solids(TDS)and cations:calcium(Ca^2+),copper(Cu^2+),iron(Fe^2+),chromium(Cr VI),and anions:fluoride(F^-),nitrite and sulfate(SO4^2-).The investigated physicochemical parameters in the rainwater samples were within the permissible limits of the World Health Organization(WHO)drinking water quality guidelines.The ranges of concentration for the physical parameters analyzed were;pH:(5.8-7.7),EC:(5.08-35.6μS/cm),TDS:(1.68-20.16 mg/L,Ca:(0.163-24.331 mg/L),Cr:(VI):(BDL-0.029 mg/L),Cu:(BDL-0.085 mg/L);Fe:(BDL-0.068),anions were SO4^2-:(BDL-5.00 mg/L)and F^-:(BDL-0.5 mg/L).Nevertheless,there was no significant difference for the measured parameters between urban and rural areas.This is a good indication that the air quality in Zanzibar is remarkably not polluted with respect to the parameters studied.展开更多
文摘In Zanzibar, from the start of the pandemic in March 2020 to the time of sampling in December 2020, SARS-CoV-2 seroprevalence data was limited. We conducted a seroprevalence study to evaluate the magnitude of SARS-CoV-2 exposure among healthcare workers, school children, and people who attended general markets in Zanzibar. The objectives of the study were to analyse the total antibodies from selected higher-risk population groups in order to determine magnitude in SARS CoV-2 exposure. Blood samples were collected from eligible and consented participants (adults and children), and their serum was analyzed for total antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 using ELISA. A questionnaire was used to collect participants’ demographic and clinical data. The overall SARS-CoV-2 seroprevalence across all age groups was 33%, and a higher seroprevalence was observed in the 40 - 49 years’ age group relative to other ages as well as in those who attended markets. A runny nose (18.8% of participants) was the most frequently reported SARS-CoV-2 infection-related symptom. Multivariable analysis showed significantly higher odds of infection in people living in urban districts. The findings provide insight into SARS-CoV-2 infection among school children, health workers, and people who attended markets in Zanzibar in the early stages of the pandemic. Exposure in these groups might have been influenced by infection and prevention strategies taken by the government, as well as shopping behavior, school overcrowding, and population density in urban settings. The study had methodological limitations, including cross-sectional design. Further, well-designed, longitudinal studies are recommended to understand exposure and transmission at a population level.
文摘Milk is one of the very important nutrients of human diet. The presence of toxic elements in milk may threaten the public health. This study reports the levels of Cadmium (Cd), Cobalt (Co) and Lead (Pb) in raw cow’s milk collected from different areas of Zanzibar Island during March - May 2016. The samples of raw milk were analyzed by Thermo Scientific-Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer for quantitative determination of the metals in the matrix. The concentration of Co in this study ranged from ND at Mwanakwerekwe (MK1 and MK2) to a maximum of 0.004 mg/L at Mshelishelini (MS5) and Fuoni (F5) sites with mean concentration of 0.020 ± 0.003 mg/L for all sites. Concentration of Pb ranged between 0.05 - 0.51 mg/L at Fuoni (F7) and Mwanakwerekwe (MK1) respectively, with mean concentration of 0.263 ± 0.031 mg/L for all sites. However, Cd was only detected in one sample collected at Fuoni (F3) with a concentration of 0.001 mg/L. The results revealed that cow’s milk is contaminated with toxic metals, particularly Pb which exceeded the WHO maximum permissible level of 0.02 mg/L. The study furthermore sheds light on possible consequences to public health. It is recommended that, stakeholders especially in Zanzibar such as Zanzibar Food and Drug Authorities (ZFDA) and Zanzibar Bureau of Standards (ZBS) as well as researchers, use the findings of this study for policy making, future study plans, formulation of technical strategies to control milk contamination, risk assessment and develop new alternative methods to measure milk contamination even at a low detection limit for the sake of the consumers’ welfare before posing any serious effects to their health.
文摘The Running Frogs(Kassina spp.) are members of the Hyperoliidae,a family that is restricted to sub-Saharan Africa.Although summary information exists on the amphibian fauna of Zanzibar,only K. maculata has been recorded on Unguja,the largest of the islands in Zanzibar.Recent field surveys conducted in Jozani-Chwaka National Park revealed the presence of a frog in the genus Kassina that differs from all known species and,based on current knowledge,is endemic to Zanzibar.A new running frog species of Kassina was discovered from Jozani-Chwaka National Park,Zanzibar,Tanzania in 2006.It is distinguished from other species in its genus,by an advertisement call,that is pulsed,
文摘Samples of amaranth and cabbage from Zanzibar were analyzed for heavy metal concentrations using Energy Dispersive X-ray Fluorescence spectrometry (EDXRF) of Tanzania Atomic Energy Commission (TAEC) in Arusha. Thirty samples of amaranth and twenty five samples of cabbage were collected from four farms and two markets at Urban West Region in Zanzibar. The concentrations of Al, Cl, Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Zn, Cu, Ag, I, Br, Cd and Pb are presented and discussed. Amaranth had significant (P < 0.05) higher concentrations of Zn, Fe, Cr and Mn than cabbage, whilst Cd, Ni and Pb were significantly (P < 0.05) higher in cabbage than amaranth. Although the mean concentrations of the essential elements were in the range reported in literature, Pb and Cd were in concentrations above FAO/ WHO maximum tolerable limits.
文摘Owing to health and security hazards posed by concentration of EMR (electromagnetic radiations) from wireless transmission devices such as antennas and WiFi, it is time for building specialists to consider EMR shielding in general designs. Such a venture needs understanding of shielding behavior of various building materials in their isolated and combined forms. While shielding properties of several industrial materials are known, much remains to be understood from traditional materials. This article contributes to the knowledge of SE (shielding effectiveness) of the latter materials. It has tested the buildings of the 19th CE STZ (Stone Town of Zanzibar). The coral stones, mud, and mangrove pole buildings of this historic town were found to be effective in shielding the radiations, nearly the same as renowned buildings of the Roman Empire.
文摘The study employed the triangulation approach to investigate the impact of climate variability on selected socioeconomic indicators, particularly food production, health and education, and how much climate variability and its impact on those indicators was realized and understood among the women living in Jambiani community in Zanzibar. The study used the explanatory, sequential mixed method to collect, datasets related to Jambiani communities (i.e. from the women in Kibigija village), other climate data acquired from Tanzania Meteorological Authority (TMA), Ministries of Agriculture and Health and Southern District in Zanzibar. The results obtained from the analysis of both anecdotal (interview, questionnaire among others) data shows that climate variability was imminent in Jambiani communities between 2010 and 2015 and had a negative impact on food production, health and education. Further results revealed that women working in informal sectors are more vulnerable to climate impacts than women working in formal sectors due to less knowledge and techniques to mitigate/cope with climate variability impacts. Conclusively the study has shown that climate variability affects more women with less awareness of what is happening and how to cope with it, thus the study calls for new research work and increasing the awareness on the impacts of climate on human basic needs.
文摘BackgroundZanzibar has made substantial progress in malaria control with vector control, improved diagnosis, and artemisinin-based combination therapy. Parasite prevalence in the population has remained around 1% but imported infections from mainland Tanzania contribute to sustained local transmission. Understanding travel patterns between mainland Tanzania and Zanzibar, and the risk of malaria infection, may help to control malaria importation to Zanzibar.MethodsA rolling cross-sectional survey linked to routine reactive case detection of malaria was carried out in Zanzibar between May 2017 and October 2018. Households of patients diagnosed with malaria at health facilities were surveyed and household members were tested for malaria using rapid diagnostic tests and a sub-sample by quantitative PCR (qPCR). Interviews elicited a detailed travel history of all household members who had travelled within the past two months, including trips within and outside of Zanzibar. We estimated the association of malaria infection with travel destinations in pre-defined malaria endemicity categories, trip duration, and other co-variates using logistic regression.ResultsOf 17,891 survey participants, 1177 (7%) reported a recent trip, of which 769 (65%) visited mainland Tanzania. Among travellers to mainland Tanzania with travel destination details and a qPCR result available, 241/378 (64%) reported traveling to districts with a ‘high’ malaria endemicity and for 12% the highest endemicity category was ‘moderate’. Travelers to the mainland were more likely to be infected with malaria parasites (29%, 108/378) than those traveling within Zanzibar (8%, 16/206) or to other countries (6%, 2/17). Among travellers to mainland Tanzania, those visiting highly endemic districts had a higher odds of being qPCR-positive than those who travelled only to districts where malaria-endemicity was classified as low or very low (adjusted odd ratio = 7.0, 95% confidence interval: 1.9–25.5). Among travellers to the mainland, 110/378 (29%) never or only sometimes used a mosquito net during their travel.ConclusionsStrategies to reduce malaria importation to Zanzibar may benefit from identifying population groups traveling to highly endemic areas in mainland Tanzania. Targeted interventions to prevent and clear infections in these groups may be more feasible than attempting to screen and treat all travellers upon arrival in Zanzibar.
基金This study received financial support from Innosuisse(project 18553.2 PFLS-LS)from the University of Georgia Research Foundation Inc.,which is funded by the Bill&Melinda Gates Foundation for the Schistosomiasis Consortium for Operational Research and Evaluation(SCORE)projects(prime award no.50816,sub-award no.RR374–053/4893206)+1 种基金SK received financial support by sub-award no.RR374–053/4893196 and via direct grants from the Bill&Melinda Gates Foundation(Investment IDs:OPP1191423 and OPP1198086)FA received financial support from the Wellcome Trust(SCAN Project 104958/Z/14/Z).
文摘Background:Efforts to control and eliminate schistosomiasis have accelerated over the past decade.As parasite burden,associated morbidity and egg excretion decrease,diagnosis with standard parasitological methods becomes harder.We assessed the robustness and performance of a real-time PCR(qPCR)approach in comparison with urine filtration microscopy and reagent strip testing for the diagnosis of Schistosoma haematobium infections of different intensities.Methods:The robustness of DNA isolation and qPCR was validated in eight laboratories from Europe and Africa.Subsequently,792 urine samples collected during cross-sectional surveys of the Zanzibar Elimination of Schistosomiasis Transmission(ZEST)project in 2012-2017 were examined with qPCR in 2018.Diagnostic sensitivity of the qPCR was calculated at different infection intensity categories,using urine filtration microscopy as reference test.Spearman's rank correlation between Ct-values and S.haematobium egg counts was assessed and Ct-value percentiles for infection intensity categories determined.Results:S.haematobium Dra1 DNA-positive samples were identified correctly in all eight laboratories.Examination of urine samples from Zanzibar revealed Dra1 DNA in 26.8%(212/792)by qPCR,S.haematobium eggs in 13.3%(105/792)by urine filtration,and microhaematuria in 13.8%(109/792)by reagent strips.Sensitivity of the qPCR increased with augmenting egg counts:80.6%(29/36)for counts between 1 and 4 eggs,83.3%(15/18)for counts between 5 and 9 eggs,100%(23/23)for counts between 10 and 49 eggs,and 96.4%(27/28)for counts of 50+eggs.There was a significant negative correlation between Ct-values and egg counts(Spearman's rho=-0.49,P<0.001).Seventy-five percent of the Ct-values were≥33 in the egg-negative category,<31 in the light intensity category,and<24 in the heavy intensity category.Conclusions:While the sensitiivity of the qPCR was^80%for very light intensity infections(egg counts<10),in general,the Dra1 based qPCR assay detected twice as many S.haematobium infections compared with classical parasitological tests.The qPCR is hence a sensitive,urine-based approach for S.haernatcbium diagnosis that can be used for impact assessment of schistosomiasis elimination programmes,individual diagnosis,and in improved format also for verification and certification of elimination.Trial registration:ISRCTN,ISRCTN48837681.Registered 05 September 2012-Retrospectively registered.
基金The authors gratefully acknowledge the State University of Zanzibar,Chief Government Chemist Laboratory Agency,University of Daresalam for supporting during sample collection,storage and analysis.We also thank Farid Mpatani,Hasasn Ali Juma,Peter Gofrey Ndosi for their untiring assistance.
文摘Aim of the study was to assess the physicochemical characteristics of rainwater at urban and rural(north B)Unguja.Twenty four(24)rainwater samples were analyzed for pH,electrical conductivity(EC)and total dissolved solids(TDS)and cations:calcium(Ca^2+),copper(Cu^2+),iron(Fe^2+),chromium(Cr VI),and anions:fluoride(F^-),nitrite and sulfate(SO4^2-).The investigated physicochemical parameters in the rainwater samples were within the permissible limits of the World Health Organization(WHO)drinking water quality guidelines.The ranges of concentration for the physical parameters analyzed were;pH:(5.8-7.7),EC:(5.08-35.6μS/cm),TDS:(1.68-20.16 mg/L,Ca:(0.163-24.331 mg/L),Cr:(VI):(BDL-0.029 mg/L),Cu:(BDL-0.085 mg/L);Fe:(BDL-0.068),anions were SO4^2-:(BDL-5.00 mg/L)and F^-:(BDL-0.5 mg/L).Nevertheless,there was no significant difference for the measured parameters between urban and rural areas.This is a good indication that the air quality in Zanzibar is remarkably not polluted with respect to the parameters studied.
