Present Conditions and Future Challenges of Water Resources Problems in Iraq

Iraq is part of the Middle East and North Africa (MENA region). It greatly relies in its water resources on the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. Iraq was considered rich in its water resources till 1970s. After that problems due to water scarcity aroused. Recently, it is expected that water shortage problems will be more serious. The supply and demand are predicted to be 43 and 66.8 Billion Cubic Meters (BCM) respectively in 2015, while in 2025 it will be 17.61 and 77BCM respectively. In addition, future prediction suggests that Tigris and Euphrates Rivers will be completely dry in 2040. To overcome this problem, prudent water management plan is to be adopted. It should include Strategic Water Management Vision, development of irrigation techniques, reduction of water losses, use of non-conventional water resources and research and development planning.

Landscape Architecture Development Path of Water Resource-Scarcity Cities: Summary of Jinchang City's Efforts in Constructing National Garden City

Jinchang City, a city with scarce water resources, has developed through 32 years of efforts from a small town in the Gobi desert into a medium modern city, and green coverage ratio of the downtown area has risen from 2.6% before the founding of the city to 36.11%. This paper summarized the measures adopted by Jinchang City for building national garden city.

Water Distribution in the Perspectives of Stakeholders and Water Users in the Tarim River Catchment, Xinjiang, China

Many river basins in the arid and semi-arid parts of the world are experiencing water scarcity due to water consumption by agriculture resulting in conflicts between upstream and downstream, conflicts between water users, and degradation of the natural ecosystems. The Tarim Basin, Xinjiang, China, has developed into the world’s most important cotton production region with 8.85% of the world’s production. Under the extremely arid climate with annual precipitation of below 100 mm, the water consumption due to irrigation resulted in water scarcity and conflicts between water users as well as between upstream and downstream. The Tarim river catchment harbors about half of the world’s Populus euphratica riparian forests, which are impacted by water shortage. Starting in the 1990s, a unified water management system with a quota system for water distribution has been set up. We introduce this unified water management system and analyze how the water distribution works in practice. Ecologists and forestry officials claim more water for environmental flow, whereas water management officials give priority to agricultural, industrial, and domestic water use. The water quotas for downstream regions are frequently not fulfilled, especially during the non-flood season in spring and early summer posing a risk to water users. Water users with financial and political advantages gain more water security than others. The water quotas are annual quotas. These quotas should be differentiated into seasonal quotas, in order to enhance water security for the downstream section of the Tarim all year round.

Comparison and Assessment of Success of Models in Watershed Simulation and Management

In Jordan, Zarqa River Basin (ZRB) has been taken as a case study for applying water management models because of its limited water resources and due to the fact that the basin is dwelling with about 52% of Jordan’s population. The surface water resources are mainly used for agriculture because they are mixed with treated water and cannot be used for domestic purposes. This paper aims to demonstrate the contributions of Models in watershed management that provide indirect ways of assessing and confirming the success of models in water flow simulation. The method includes transferring the computed hydrologic parameters for Zarqa basin’s sub-catchments within Watershed Modeling System (WMS) into Water Resources Model (WRM) and HEC-1 models. Then the results of the HEC-1 and WRM models are compared according to their basin’s simulation with the real basin. The study includes description of the HEC-1, WRM models philosophy, the models representation, and simulation results and analysis of the Zarqa River Basin. Comparing the results of WRM and HEC-1 models proved their simulation efficiency in predicting the flow of Zarqa River Basin. Nevertheless, the philosophy of HEC-1 is a single storm event and is based on values of curve number, while WRM philosophy describes the water flow and availability, and demand and supply balance on a daily basis across the basin. The models’ predictions for the real flow definitely establish the modeling certainty and help the water resources’ developers to incorporate different basin features for watershed representation, simulation, and management. Hence, the certainty of the results in modeling provides indirect ways of assessing the success of models’ simulations.

The driving force of water resource stress change based on the STIRPAT model:take Zhangye City as a case study

A prominent contradiction between supply and demand of water resources has restricted local development in social and economic aspects of Zhangye City,located in a typical arid region of China.Our study quantified the Water Resource Stress Index(WRSI)from 2003 to 2017 and examined the factors of population,urbanization level,GDP per capita,Engel coefficient,and water consumption per unit of GDP by using the extended stochastic impact by regression on population,affluence and technology(STIRPAT)model to find the key factors that impact WRSI of Zhangye City to relieve the pressure on water resources.The ridge regression method is applied to improve this model to eliminate multicollinearity problems.The WRSI system was developed from the following three aspects:water resources utilization(WR),regional economic development water use(WU),and water environment stress(WE).Results show that the WRSI index has fallen from 0.81(2003)to 0.17(2017),with an average annual decreased rate of 9.8%.Moreover,the absolute values of normalized coefficients demonstrate that the Engel coefficient has the largest positive contribution to increase WRSI with an elastic coefficient of 0.2709,followed by water consumption per unit of GDP and population with elastic coefficients of 0.0971 and 0.0387,respectively.In contrast,the urbanization level and GDP per capita can decrease WRSI by−0.2449 and−0.089,respectively.The decline of WRSI was attributed to water-saving society construction which included the improvement of water saving technology and the adjustment of agricultural planting structures.Furthermore,this study demonstrated the feasibility of evaluating the driving forces affecting WRSI by using the STIRPAT model and ridge regression analysis.

A dynamic model for exploring water-resource management scenarios in an inland arid area: Shanshan County, Northwestern China

Water scarcity is a challenge in many arid and semi-arid regions; this may lead to a series of environmental problems and could be stressed even further by the effects from climate change. This study focused on the water resource management in Shanshan County, an inland arid region located in northwestern China with a long history of groundwater overexploitation. A model of the supply and demand system in the study area from 2006 to2030, including effects from global climate change,was developed using a system dynamics(SD)modeling tool. This SD model was used to 1) explore the best water-resource management options by testing system responses under various scenarios and2) identify the principal factors affecting the responses, aiming for a balance of the groundwater system and sustainable socio-economic development.Three causes were identified as primarily responsible for water issues in Shanshan: low water-use efficiency low water reuse, and increase in industrial waterdemand. To address these causes, a combined scenario was designed and simulated, which was able to keep the water deficiency under 5% by 2030. The model provided some insights into the dynamic interrelations that generate system behavior and the key factors in the system that govern water demand and supply. The model as well as the study results may be useful in water resources management in Shanshan and may be applied, with appropriate modifications, to other regions facing similar water management challenges.

The Water Problem and Its Solution in Gansu, China

Based on such severe situation, we need to work out a way that enables us to analyze the current and future ability of a region to provide clean water to meet the needs of its population, and to develop a reasonable strategy to optimize the utilization of water resources in this area. This paper has worked out a resolution model and input the data of China, the United States, Russia, Laos and Afghanistan to do national testing. Then, we use the policy from “diaper incident” to do policy testing. The calculation results of the model are in conformity with the reality. Therefore, the model is effective. At last this model is used to resolve Gansu’s water problem and provide effective advices for the local government.

Introduction to rainwater management in Australia and suggestions for China's water problems

Australia is one of the world leaders in water management. The country meets the challenge of water shortage with established integrated water management in which rainwater is taken as a too precious resource to be just drained off. In Australia, rainwater is extensively harvested and polished to provide cheaper supply for potable and non-potable domestic uses, irrigation, landscaping, refilling aquifers and other uses. Implementing dual management over the quantity and quality of storm water and practicing water sensitive urban design (WSUD) in urban areas effectively control non-point-source pollution of waterways by pollutants carried with runoffs, reduce the discharge of rainwater and thus protect properties and lives from damage by floods. These achievements are attributed to constant reinforcement by govenments from federal to local levels in policy, financial, legal and educational aspects, and also to the lasting efforts of professional communities and water industry in developing requisite techniques, demonstrating the benefits and fostering public credence of rainwater reuse. The successful rainwater management practices in Australia suggest rainwater harvesting can be a complimentary means for the South-to-North Water Transfer Scheme to solve the water shortage in China's northern regions, and thus release to a degree the pressure on the Yangtze water resources. Best management practices of rainwater can be an effective controlling strategy for flooding and non-point-source water pollution of waterways. Such in-site source control initiatives have particular significance to protecting slow waterways of weak self-purification ability, like the Three Gorges Reservior.

中国水资源短缺标准与分区评价

明确水资源短缺标准和区域缺水状态是水资源规划管理工作的基础,但现状没有形成共识和标准,影响水资源刚性约束和“四水四定”等制度政策的有效实施。研究分析了水资源短缺的概念内涵,选取年降水量和人均可利用水资源量指标,考虑外调水量和可利用过境水量等影响要素,建立了“双指标、四要素、三等级”的水资源短缺评价体系,通过计算现代生产力水平下不同区域供养一个人平均水资源需求量,并与区域实际人均可利用水资源量进行对比,提出不同分区水资源短缺和严重短缺的判断阈值,其中黄淮海流域为人均可利用水资源量600 m^(3)和400 m^(3),松辽流域为人均可利用水资源量800 m^(3)和500 m^(3),长江流域、珠江流域、东南和西南诸河区为人均可利用水资源量1500 m^(3)和1000 m^(3)。研究提出的水资源短缺判别标准显著低于1989年Falkenmark提出的人均水资源量1700 m^(3)标准,主要原因在于生产力水平和灌溉用水效率大幅提升。据此开展全国345个地市水资源短缺评价,结果表明,不短缺、短缺和严重短缺的地市占比分别为55%、23%和22%。

国土空间规划背景下西北干旱地区农业空间布局研究——以甘肃省武威市民勤县为例

该文在国土空间规划总体规划背景之下,提出基于有限资源,以“水-地-产”共融模式,探索地区农业结构优化及空间合理布局的实施路径,并以此为类,为该类地区农业发展提供一定借鉴和参考。

Novel Applications for Fog Water Harvesting

In a scenario of climate changes and increasing stress upon available fresh water resources like rivers, lakes and aquifers, collecting fog water is a promising yet relatively unexplored potentiality. Providing sufficient water and reducing water extraction’s environmental impact at the same time can be a challenge with conventional ways, but fog harvesting technology presents itself as a powerful and efficient alternative. Water availability profoundly determined regional economic benefit, social relations and it also influenced environmental security and ecosystem services. Underdeveloped countries have been dealing with water scarcity issue for decades, but also wealthy countries will have to face the water crisis soon, due to unsustainable development processes. A review of the state of the art highlights the most relevant parameters to deal with when discussing about fog water harvesting. In regions with frequent fog events, this technology already proved to be a sustainable drinking water resource for rural communities and their low per capita water usage was provided by basic devices utilization. Nevertheless, in this paper, different fog water harvesting applications are investigated, besides the already existing fresh-water collection, reforestation and agricultural use. Further options, such as building components, outdoor activities and domestic devices are considered, according to different parameters, such as economic benefits, possibility of standardized production, life cycle and market attractiveness. A desirable novel concept would become relevant in specific contexts, thanks to multiple functions, offering locals designed and customized solutions. Also noteworthy are the landscape impact of such devices and the effects of the project in terms of places regeneration, raising awareness and “green” conscience creation. The study of local climatic data and improvement in fog collector applications, integration with architectural and landscape design, will expand the regions where fog harvesting can be applied and its sustainable improvements.

基于水足迹理论的太湖流域水资源评价研究

为了解近10年太湖流域水资源开发利用状况,以太湖流域工农业生产、人口、农产品、动物产品等为研究数据,计算太湖流域水足迹及各项指标,对太湖流域水资源可持续利用状况作出分析与评价。结果表明:太湖流域近10年平均水足迹为511.6×10^(8)m^(3),低于全国平均水平,水资源自给率为63.9%,人均水足迹为889.7 m^(3),且逐年呈下降趋势,水资源匮乏度及水资源压力分别高达228.0%、273.9%,整个水资源系统处于严重超载状态。水足迹强度为100.1 m^(3)/万元,且呈逐渐下降趋势,表明太湖流域水资源的利用效率在逐年提高。为促进太湖流域水资源可持续利用,应采取以流域生态修复和水资源优化配置为基础的区域水生态安全保障策略,逐步提高水资源有效利用率。

基于水足迹的山东省农业水土资源匹配特征及短缺压力分析

高强度农业开发引起的农业水土资源生态问题日益增多,探究粮食及蔬菜(粮蔬)生产中水土资源空间配置及短缺压力对农业资源的可持续利用具有重要意义。从水足迹视角出发,分析了山东省3种主要粮食作物(冬小麦、玉米及大豆)和两种不同种植模式蔬菜(设施蔬菜和露地蔬菜)的生产水足迹空间特征;同时将资源数量及资源质量的概念纳入研究框架,分析了农业水土资源数量及质量匹配格局差异,并进一步探究了农业水土资源短缺压力及其影响因素。研究结果表明:(1)2019年,山东省粮食和蔬菜的生产总水足迹为811亿m^(3),其中粮食生产总水足迹占比78.50%,蔬菜生产总水足迹占比21.50%;粮蔬生产水足迹受地势影响明显,鲁西北及鲁西南平原地区的粮蔬生产水足迹占比较大。(2)考虑资源数量的水土资源匹配系数均值为0.622×10^(4) m^(3)/hm^(2),考虑资源质量的匹配系数均值为0.416×10^(4) m^(3)/hm^(2);水土资源数量及质量匹配系数在空间上呈现出一致性,表明山东省农业生产水土资源空间配置水平高的地区同时面临着较大的农业面源污染压力。(3)整体上,土地资源短缺压力略高于水资源短缺压力;基于生产视角的水土资源短缺压力受生产环境因素制约显著,受经济发展因素的影响具有差异性,社会因素对水土资源短缺压力无显著影响。研究可为农业资源可持续管理提供数据基础,为全面理解粮蔬生产所产生的水土资源短缺提供案例参考。

基于多因素探讨的终端农业水价模型研究

近年来随着农业水价综合改革的不断深入,各地区均取得一些令人瞩目的成果。水价改革的关键在于构建科学合理的农业水价形成机制。在深入分析农业水价影响因素后,认为水资源禀赋条件、用户承受能力、供水成本以及成本水价的合理分摊是影响终端农业水价构成的关键因素,为获得更加合理的终端水价,笔者将上述因素纳入计算模型中对终端水价进行了修正。在此基础上,以某县农业水价综合改革试点为例,实例测算了试点区终端运行成本水价、全成本水价及两部制水价。与现状灌溉水价相比,不同年型下计算所得终端水价均高于现状,考虑在试点改革初期,建议可先将供水价格提高到运行成本水平,以保证水利工程正常运行所需的合理经费,后期随着农业水价综合改革的不断深入,再逐步将供水价格标准提升至全成本水平,从而更好地发挥价格机制的经济杠杆作用。

深圳市水资源匮乏现状、节水政策演变及对策建议

本文着重从可持续发展角度剖析了深圳市水资源匮乏现状以及节水政策,立足于节水相关法律法规并结合实际,研究“节水”本质。旨在以国家、深圳市水资源法律法规等相关政策为指导,梳理各环节重点措施,进而提出切合实际的有效对策建议,以达到水资源供需平衡。从源头取水,过程改善,末端管控等方面进行探讨,大力筹划发展引流工程,建立节约用水分类收集、处理、再利用一体化体系,加强污水处理工艺技术、节水器具的研发,使污水资源化利用达到新高度。运用智慧化节水平台,加大、细化行业用水监管,针对性进行节水宣传教育引导。

基于水稻生产水足迹的盘锦市水资源利用效率评价及水土资源测算与评价

水足迹是评价人类活动对水资源开采和水环境污染程度的重要方法。为缓解盘锦市水资源问题,结合水稻生产水足迹评估水资源利用效率,探究水稻生产中水土资源配置及短缺压力。结果表明:①2009-2021年,盘锦市水稻生产单位质量水足迹年均值为1.26 m^(3)/kg。从用水来源来看,绿水足迹和蓝水足迹占水足迹总量的比重较大。②盘锦市水资源利用程度较高,表现为大多数年份基本不存在水资源压力;水资源开发程度较高;消耗等量水资源所带来的经济价值逐渐增加。③考虑资源数量的水土资源匹配系数均值为0.375万m^(3)/hm^(2),考虑资源质量的匹配系数均值为0.273万m^(3)/hm^(2),盘锦农业生产所产生的资源数量影响大于质量产生的影响。④整体上,水资源短缺压力高于土地资源短缺压力,基于生产视角的水资源短缺压力受社会、经济、生产环境发展因素的影响较小,经济环境因素对土地资源短缺压力影响显著。研究结果可在推动农业用水的高效利用、提高水资源利用率、促进农业水土资源合理配置方面,实现区域水资源的可持续利用。

潼关县地下水资源开采潜力及开发利用条件分析

为了合理开发利用地下水资源,以潼关县为研究区,研究分析潼关县地下水开采潜力和开发利用条件,从而为地下水资源的可持续利用提供合理化建议。通过对区内地下水资源开发现状及抽水试验资料分析,获取水文地质参数,采用平均布井法和可开采系数法计算出区内地下水可开采资源量,并采用开采潜力指数法判定开采潜力类别,对抽水试验孔涌水量换算成统降(径)单位涌水量进行富水性分区。在此基础上,结合地下水化学特征进行开发利用条件分区。结果表明,研究区地下水资源开采潜力指数为1.76,属有开采潜力地区,可扩大开采;地下水开发利用条件可分为宜开发区(Ⅰ)和不宜开发区(Ⅱ),宜开发区进一步划分为开发条件好的地区(Ⅰ_(1))和开发条件差的地区(Ⅰ_(2))。为研究区地下水资源合理规划和开采提供了科学依据。

华北平原水资源紧缺情势与因源

基于水资源可持续利用理念,从水资源承载能力演化周期性、经济社会需用水规模难变性和未来水资源供需关系入手,介绍近60年以来华北平原水资源情势,特别是该平原水资源量、实际用水量和地下水开采量变化特征,并结合未来10到30年区域经济社会发展需用水量趋势,识别和诊断华北平原水资源紧缺因源。结果表明：由于降水量减少导致华北平原缺水（自然资源性缺水）占该平原总缺水量的15.1%~16.4%;因管理缺陷导致水资源浪费的缺水（管理性缺水）占22.1%~24.2%;人口数量和经济社会发展规模过大导致用水量超过区域水资源承载力的缺水（政策性缺水）占59.3%~62.5%。自然资源性、管理性以及政策性缺水的解决对策不同：自然资源性缺水是不依人的意志为转移的,惟有从外域适量调水才能解决;管理性缺水可通过社会文明进步和科技进步不断修正;政策性缺水宜因势利导进行经济社会布局和产业结构调整,特别是限制高耗低效用水产业。即使南水北调工程70.3×108m3/a水进入华北平原,该平原地下水超采情势也难以得到根本性扭转。有新增水源调入或华北平原严控生活和工业用水量,同时大幅压减农业用水量,因势利导优化和逐步调整经济社会布局和产业结构,特别是灌溉农业进行规模化减蒸、降耗、节水的改造,将是缓解华北平原地下水超采和水资源紧缺的根本所在。

水资源紧缺类型及其对策分析研究

从水的供给和需求角度分析了水资源紧缺原因,其中供给角度造成的紧缺有资源型紧缺、水质型紧缺和工程型紧缺,需求角度造成的紧缺有结构型紧缺、效率型紧缺和价格型紧缺.针对紧缺原因,提出了被动型、主动型和混合型3种水资源配置对策.

基于水足迹的河北省水资源安全评价

水足迹是基于消费基础的水资源利用情况的指示器,能深刻揭示社会经济系统对水资源的真实消费,为水资源可持续规划与管理提供了新的思路和研究方向。本文以河北省为例,运用产品虚拟水研究方法计算了2010年河北省的虚拟水消费和水足迹。结果表明,2010年河北省水足迹为896.40×108m3,人均水足迹为1 246.04 m3,高于全国平均水平;水资源匮乏度为747.81%,水资源压力指数高达1 054.08%,说明河北省水资源利用呈不可持续状态。亟需加快提高水资源利用效率,优化作物布局、调整种植结构,改善人类消费结构及消费模式和虚拟水进口,强化节水工作。