Flow-Induced Acoustic Resonances in Exhaust Gas Economizer Tube Banks

To investigate the conditions under which acoustic resonances occur, staggered arrays of closely spaced rigid tubes were tested in a wind tunnel under various flow velocities. The author investigated the Strouhal numbers at which flow periodicities occur, the relation between these Strouhal numbers and those at which acoustic resonances occur, and the effects of Reynolds number and longitudinal tube spacings on the occurrence of acoustic resonance. This investigation showed the following： （1） Acoustic resonance can be produced at a frequency well removed from that of vortex shedding. The results also show evidence of vortex shedding and acoustic resonance existing simultaneously but at different frequencies. （2） Acoustic resonance behavior is consistent with that of a self-excited system. （3） A new model of this phenomenon provides an improved procedure for avoiding acoustic resonances in closely spaced tube banks.

Acoustic Resonance in Exhaust Gas Economizer Tube Bundles Prediction and Suppression of Resonance

The tendency for air column resonance generation in structures with a constant volume behind a tube array like that of an exhaust gas economizer has been reported, but many points remain unclear with respect to the mechanism and conditions that generate acoustical resonance. When acoustical resonance is generated, in reality, prevention and suppression measures are implemented by inserting a baffle plate into the ducts through a process of trial and error. The purpose of this study is to clarify the mechanism of generation of acoustical resonance, and to establish an appropriate measure to prevent such resonance. Noise generated in an exhaust gas economizer was correlated with the flow inside the tube array and experimentally analyzed, and the mechanism for resonance generation was considered. In addition, the effectiveness of a baffle plate positioned in order to prevent resonance was investigated. We have successfully employed a single baffle plate to suppress resonance.

Role of unsteady tip leakage flow in acoustic resonance inception of a multistage compressor

In previous studies,a theoretical model was developed after Acoustic Resonance(AR)was experimentally detected in a four-stage compressor,and AR inception was proposed to be triggered by an unknown sound source,which is a pressure perturbation of a specific frequency with a suitable circumferential propagation speed.The present paper,which is not dedicated to the simulation of acoustic field,aims to identify the specific sound source generated by the unsteady tip leakage flow using the unsteady Computational Fluid Mechanics(CFD)approach.After a comprehensive analysis of an Unsteady Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes(URANS)simulation,a pressure perturbation of non-integer multiple of rotor frequency is found at the blade tip.Since the essence of the tip leakage flow is a jet flow driven by the pressure difference between two sides of blade,a simplified tip leakage flow model is adopted using Large Eddy Simulation(LES)in order to simulate the jet flow through a tip clearance.It is found that the convection velocity of shedding vortices fits the expected propagation speed of the sound source,the frequency is also close to one of the dominating frequencies in the URANS simulation,and the resultant combination frequency coincides with the experimentally measured AR frequency.Since such a simplified model successfully captures the key physical mechanisms,it is concluded that this paper provides a piece of unambiguous evidence on the role of unsteady tip leakage vortex in triggering the AR inception of the multistage compressor.

RDX crystals with high sphericity prepared by resonance acoustic mixing assisted solvent etching technology

In order to obtain high-quality spherical RDX crystal particles,the RDX crystals were suspended in a mixed solvent of cyclohexanone and cyclohexane,subsequently a solvent etching study was carried out under the action of vibration/acoustic flow coupled flow field,which generated by resonance acoustic mixing.The effects of solvent ratio,temperature,acceleration and experiment time on morphology as well as particle size of RDX crystals were studied.Not only were the morphology,particle size distribution and crystal form of RDX crystals determined,but also the thermal decomposition performance and mechanical sensitivity of spherical RDX were examined and discussed.Results indicated that under the process of solvent/non-solvent volume ratio at 1:2,temperature of 40℃,acceleration of 40 g and experiment time of 4 h,α-type RDX crystal with sphericity of 0.92 can be obtained.Furthermore,the median particle size(D_(50))of spherical RDX crystals is 215.8 μm with a unimodal particle size distribution(size span 1.34).For one thing,the thermal decomposition peak temperature of spherical RDX is about 2.5℃ higher than that of raw RDX,and apparent activation energy reaches 444.68 kJ/mol.For another thing,impact sensitivity and friction sensitivity of spherical RDX are 18.18% and 33.33% lower than that of raw RDX,respectively.It demonstrates that safety of spherical RDX under thermal,impact and friction stimuli has been improved.

A transient method for measuring the gas volume fraction in a mixed gas-liquid flow using acoustic resonance spectroscopy

In this paper, the feasibility of measuring the gas volume fraction in a mixed gas-liquid flow by using an acoustic resonant spectroscopy (ARS) method in a transient way is studied theoretically and experimentally. Firstly, the effects of sizes and locations of a single air bubble in a cylindrical cavity with two open ends on resonant frequencies are investigated numerically. Then, a transient measurement system for ARS is established, and the trends of the resonant frequencies (RFs) and resonant amplitudes (RAs) in the cylindrical cavity with gas flux inside are investigated experimentally. The measurement results by the proposed transient method are compared with those by steady-state ones and numerical ones. The numerical results show that the RFs of the cavity are highly sensitive to the volume of the single air bubble. A tiny bubble volume perturbation may cause a prominent RF shift even though the volume of the air bubble is smaller than 0.1% of that of the cavity. When the small air bubble moves, the RF shift will change and reach its maximum value as it is located at the middle of the cavity. As the gas volume fraction of the two-phase flow is low, both the RFs and RAs from the measurement results decrease dramatically with the increasing gas volume, and this decreasing trend gradually becomes even as the gas volume fraction increases further. These experimental results agree with the theoretical ones qualitatively. In addition, the transient method for ARS is more suitable for measuring the gas volume fraction with randomness and instantaneity than the steady-state one, because the latter could not reflect the random and instant characteristics of the mixed fluid due to the time consumption for frequency sweeping. This study will play a very important role in the quantitative measurement of the gas volume fraction of multiphase flows.

Effect of Cavities inside Tube Banks on Acoustic Resonance

In the present paper the attention is focused on the effect of small cavities inside in-line tube banks on acoustic resonance which occurred in the two-dimensional model of boiler. We measured the sound pressure level, the amplitude and the phase delay of acoustic pressures and the gap velocity. As a result, we found many peak frequencies of sound pressure level with different Strouhal numbers, mainly about S1=0.15, 0.26 and 0.52. The variation of SPL for S,=0.26, 0.52 components in the tube banks with cavities was the same as the result of no cavities. The existence of cavities inside in-line tube banks caused the resonance of St=0.15. And the acoustic resonance of the first mode in the transverse direction was generated if the small cavities existed inside the tube banks. This resonance was not generated from the tube banks of no cavities. The resonance onset velocity in the transverse mode was fairly slower than that of no cavities. It was easy to generate acoustic resonance when there were small cavities inside in-line tube banks.

Physical model for acoustic resonance in annular cavity structure

A physical model for acoustic resonance in the annular cavity structure is developed to represent the typical characteristic when acoustic resonance occurs.Firstly,the measurement of sound pressure in the casing and rotor blades vibration is operated in a multistage high pressure compressor.The sharp peak frequency and discrete multi-tone occur in the frequency spectrum of sound pressure in the compressor,and the vibration of the first stage of rotor blades synchronously presents the high amplitude.The frequencies associated with rotor blades vibration can be calculated with rotating sound source theory.It is also confirmed that acoustic resonance occurs in the multistage compressor.With acoustic similarity principle,an annular cavity model is established to simulate the typical characteristics of acoustic resonance in the compressor based on Large Eddy Simulation(LES)and Lighthill acoustic analogy.The coupling relationship between cavity acoustic mode and disc vibration mode shape is expounded when acoustic resonance occurs in the model.And acoustic resonance will be locked in the certain flow rate range.All these characteristics match well with those occur in the multistage high pressure compressor.

Flow Induced Acoustic Resonance in In-line Tube Banks

In the present paper the attention is focused on the relation between vortex shedding phenomena and acoustic resonance which occurred in the two-dimensional model of boiler. There were tube banks with in-line arrangement for small tube pitch ratio. We measured the sound pressure level, the phase delay of acoustic pressures, the spectrum of velocity fluctuation and the gap velocity. As a result, we found two peak frequencies of sound pressure level with different Strouhal numbers St, mainly about 0.26 and 0,52, The noise of St=0.26 was the resonance of transverse mode and St=0.52 was longitudinal mode. The vortex shedding of St=0.15 was generated inside the tube banks without acoustic resonance. As gap velocity increased, we observed that the peak level of spectrum was weak and broad-banded, The onset velocity of the acoustic resonance of longitudinal mode was lower than that of transverse mode.

Numerical analysis of the resonance mechanism of the lumped parameter system model for acoustic mine detection

The method of numerical analysis is employed to study the resonance mechanism of the lumped parameter system model for acoustic mine detection. Based on the basic principle of the acoustic resonance technique for mine detection and the characteristics of low-frequency acoustics, the “soil-mine” system could be equivalent to a damping “mass-spring” resonance model with a lumped parameter analysis method. The dynamic simulation software, Adams, is adopted to analyze the lumped parameter system model numerically. The simulated resonance frequency and anti-resonance frequency are 151 Hz and 512 Hz respectively, basically in agreement with the published resonance frequency of 155 Hz and anti-resonance frequency of 513 Hz, which were measured in the experiment. Therefore, the technique of numerical simulation is validated to have the potential for analyzing the acoustic mine detection model quantitatively. The influences of the soil and mine parameters on the resonance characteristics of the soil–mine system could be investigated by changing the parameter setup in a flexible manner.

Extraordinary Acoustic Transmission in a Helmholtz Resonance Cavity-Constructed Acoustic Grating

We investigate both experimentally and numerically a complex structure, where ＇face-to-face＇ Helmholtz resonance cavities （HRCs） are introduced to construct a one-dimensional acoustic grating. In this system, pairs of HRCs can intensely couple with each other in two forms： a bonding state and an anti-bonding state, analogous to the character of hydrogen molecule with two atoms due to the interference of wave functions of sound among the acoustic local-resonating structures. The bonding state is a ＇bright＇ state that interferes with the Fabry-Pbrot resonance mode, thereby causing this state to break up into two modes as the splitting of the extraordinary acoustic transmission peak. On the contrary, the anti-bonding state is a ＇dark＇ state in which the resonance mode remains entirely localized within the HRCs, and has no contribution to the acoustic transmission.

3D Characteristic Diagram of Acoustically Induced Surface Vibration with Different Landmines Buried

The 3D characteristic diagram of acoustically induced surface vibration was employed to study the influence of different buried landmines on the acoustic detection signal. By using the vehicular experimental system for acoustic landmine detection and the method of scanning detection, the 3D characteristic diagrams of surface vibration were measured when different objects were buried underground, including big plastic landmine, small plastic landmine, big metal landmine and bricks. The results show that, under the given conditions, the surface vibration amplitudes of big plastic landmine, big metal landmine, small plastic landmine and bricks decrease in turn. The 3D characteristic diagrams of surface vibration can be used to further identify the locations of buried landmines.

Manipulations of micro/nanoparticles using gigahertz acoustic streaming tweezers

Contactless acoustic manipulation of micro/nanoscale particles has attracted considerable attention owing to its near independence of the physical and chemical properties of the targets,making it universally applicable to almost all biological systems.Thin-film bulk acoustic wave(BAW)resonators operating at gigahertz(GHz)frequencies have been demonstrated to generate localized high-speed microvortices through acoustic streaming effects.Benefitting from the strong drag forces of the high-speed vortices,BAW-enabled GHz acoustic streaming tweezers(AST)have been applied to the trapping and enrichment of particles ranging in size from micrometers to less than 100 nm.However,the behavior of particles in such 3D microvortex systems is still largely unknown.In this work,the particle behavior(trapping,enrichment,and separation)in GHz AST is studied by theoretical analyses,3D simulations,and microparticle tracking experiments.It is found that the particle motion in the vortices is determined mainly by the balance between the acoustic streaming drag force and the acoustic radiation force.This work can provide basic design principles for AST-based lab-on-a-chip systems for a variety of applications.

An Investigation on Efficient Acoustic Energy Reflection of Flexible Film Bulk Acoustic Resonators

This paper investigates the issues on acoustic energy reflection of flexible film bulk acoustic resonators(FBARs). The flexible FBAR was fabricated with an air cavity in the polymer substrate, which endowed the resonator with efficient acoustic reflection and high electrical performance. The acoustic wave propagation and reflection in FBAR were first analyzed by Mason model, and then flexible FBARs of 2.66 GHz series resonance in different configurations were fabricated. To validate efficient acoustic reflection of flexible resonators, FBARs were transferred onto different polymer substrates without air cavities. Experimental results indicate that efficient acoustic reflection can be efficiently predicted by Mason model. Flexible FBARs with air cavities exhibit a higher figure of merit(FOM). Our demonstration provides a feasible solution to flexible MEMS devices with highly efficient acoustic reflection(i.e. energy preserving) and free-moving cavities, achieving both high flexibility and high electrical performance.

A new model for film bulk acoustic wave resonators

Based on cavity resonance and sandwich composite plate （3D） theoretical model for frequency dispersion characterization theory, this paper presents a universal three-dimensional and displacement profile shapes of the film bulk acoustic resonator （FBARs）. This model provides results of FBAR excited thickness-extensional and flexure modes, and the result of frequency dispersion is proposed in which the thicknesses and impedance of the electrodes and the piezoelectric material are taken into consideration; its further simplification shows good agreement with the modified Butterworth-Van-Dyke （MBVD） model. The displacement profile reflects the vibration stress distribution of electrode shapes and the lateral resonance effect, which depends on the axis ratio of the electrode shapes a/b. The results are consistent with the 3D finite element method modeling and laser interferometry measurement in general.

Active control scheme for improving mass resolution of film bulk acoustic resonators

High mass resolution of sensors based on film bulk acoustic resonators （FBARs） is required for the detection of small molecules with the low concentration. An active control scheme is presented to improve the mass resolution of the FBAR sen- sors by adding a feedback voltage onto the driving voltage between two electrodes of the FBAR sensors, The feedback voltage is obtained by giving a constant gain and a constant phase shift to the current on the electrodes of the FBAR sensors. The acoustic energy produced by the feedback voltage partly compensates the acoustic energy loss due to the material damping and the acoustic scattering, and thus improves the quality factor and the mass resolution of the FBAR sensors. An explicit expression relating to the impedance and the frequency for an FBAR sensor with the active control is derived based on the continuum theory by neglecting the influence of the electrodes. Numerical simulations show that the impedance of the FBAR sensor strongly depends on the gain and the phase shift of the feedback voltage, and the mass resolution of the FBAR sensor can greatly be improved when the appropriate gain and the phase shift of the feedback voltage are used. The active control scheme also provides an effective solution to improve the resolution of the quartz crystal microbalance （QCM）.

Hybrid Element Method for Calculation of Harbor Resonance

This paper presents a hybrid element method for calculating harbor resonance in a coastal or offshore harbor under the effects of friction and boundary absorption. The friction term is assumed to be proportional to the flow velocity with a phase difference. The boundary absorption adopts a condition similar to the impedance condition in acoustics. In the near region a variational principle is established. In the far region the solution satisfies the Helmholtz equation. Computation of results of harbor resonance by the model show good agreement between experimental data and theoretical results.

Tunable Ba_(0.5) Sr_(0.5) TiO_3 film bulk acoustic resonators using SiO_2 /Mo Bragg reflectors

Tunable and switchable Ba 0.5 Sr 0.5 TiO 3 film bulk acoustic resonators（FBARs） based on SiO 2 /Mo Bragg reflectors are explored,which can withstand high temperature for the deposition of Ba x Sr 1 x TiO 3（BST） films at 800 C.The dc bias-dependent resonance may be attributed to the piezoelectricity of the BST film induced by an electrostrictive effect.The series resonant frequency is strongly dc bias-dependent and shifts downwards with dc bias increasing,while the parallel resonant frequency is only weakly dc bias-dependent and slightly shifts upwards at low dc bias（ 45 V） while downwards at higher dc bias.The calculated relative tunability of shifts at series resonance frequency is around 2.3% and the electromechanical coupling coefficient is up to approximately 8.09% at 60-V dc bias,which can be comparable to AlN FBARs.This suggests that a high-quality tunable BST FBAR device can be achieved through the use of molybdenum（Mo） as the high acoustic impedance layer in a Bragg reflector,which not only provides excellent acoustic isolation from the substrate,but also improves the crystallinity of BST films withstanding higher deposition temperature.

Portable FBAR based E-nose for cold chain real-time bananas shelf time detection

Being cheap,nondestructive,and easy to use,gas sensors play important roles in the food industry.However,most gas sensors are suitable more for laboratory-quality fast testing rather than for cold-chain continuous and cumulative testing.Also,an ideal electronic nose(E-nose)in a cold chain should be stable to its surroundings and remain highly accurate and portable.In this work,a portable film bulk acoustic resonator(FBAR)-based E-nose was built for real-time measurement of banana shelf time.The sensor chamber to contain the portable circuit of the E-nose is as small as a smartphone,and by introducing an air-tight FBAR as a reference,the E-nose can avoid most of the drift caused by surroundings.With the help of porous layer by layer(LBL)coating of the FBAR,the sensitivity of the E-nose is 5 ppm to ethylene and 0.5 ppm to isoamyl acetate and isoamyl butyrate,while the detection range is large enough to cover a relative humidity of 0.8.In this regard,the E-nose can easily discriminate between yellow bananas with green necks and entirely yellow bananas while allowing the bananas to maintain their biological activities in their normal storage state,thereby showing the possibility of real-time shelf time detection.This portable FBAR-based E-nose has a large testing scale,high sensitivity,good humidity tolerance,and low frequency drift to its surroundings,thereby meeting the needs of cold-chain usage.

FlexMEMS-enabled hetero-integration for monolithic FBAR-above-IC oscillators

In this work,a monolithic oscillator chip is heterogeneously integrated by a film bulk acoustic resonator(FBAR)and a complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor(CMOS)chip using FlexMEMS technology.In the 3 D-stacked integrated chip,the thin-film FBAR sits directly over the CMOS chip,between which a 4μm-thick SU-8 layer provides a robust adhesion and acoustic reflection cavity.The proposed system-on-chip(SoC)integration features a simple fabrication process,small size,and excellent performance.The oscillator outputs 2.024 GHz oscillations of-13.79 dB m and exhibits phase noises of-63,-120,and-136 dB c/Hz at 1 kHz,100 kHz,and far-from-carrier offset,respectively.FlexMEMS technology guarantees compact and accurate assembly,process compatibility,and high performance,thereby demonstrating its great potential in SoC hetero-integration applications.

A prototype portable instrument employing micro-preconcentrator and FBAR sensor for the detection of chemical warfare agents

The presence of chemical warfare agents(CWAs)in the environment is a serious threat to human safety,but there are many problems with the currently available detection methods for CWAs.For example,gas chromatography–mass spectrometry cannot be used for in-field detection owing to the rather large size of the equipment required,while commercial sensors have the disadvantages of low sensitivity and poor selectivity.Here,we develop a portable gas sensing instrument for CWA detection that consists of a MEMSfabricated micro-preconcentrator(μPC)and a film bulk acoustic resonator(FBAR)gas sensor.The μPC is coated with a nanoporous metal–organic framework material to enrich the target,while the FBAR provides rapid detection without the need for extra carrier gas.Dimethyl methylphosphonate(DMMP),a simulant of the chemical warfare agent sarin,is used to test the performance of the instrument.Experimental results show that the μPC provides effective sample pretreatment,while the FBAR gas sensor has good sensitivity to DMMP vapor.The combination of μPC and FBAR in one instrument gives full play to their respective advantages,reducing the limit of detection of the analyte.Moreover,both the μPC and the FBAR are fabricated using a CMOS-compatible approach,and the prototype instrument is compact in size with high portability and thus has potential for application to in-field detection of CWAs.