Validation of High Performance Liquid Chromatography with Fluorescence Detector Methods for Determination of Aflatoxins in Different Food and Animal Feed Samples

Method validation for quantitative analysis of aflatoxins, AFB1, AFB2, AFG1 and AFG2 in sorghum, peanut butter, groundnut and animals feed is presented. Aflatoxins were extracted with a mixture of methanol: acetonitrile: water (60:30:10) and cleaned with Alfa test IAC chromatography before analysis by High Performance Liquid Chromatography coupled with fluorescence detection (HPLC-FLD) by adopting an isocratic chromatographic system using a mobile phase consisting acetic acid: acetonitrile: methanol (59:14:27), the separation of the four aflatoxins was achieved in less than 15 minutes. Calibration curves were linear over the concentration range from 2 - 18 ng/mL for AFB1 and AFG1, 0.4 - 3.6 ng/mL for AFB2 and AFG2, respectively. The LOD and LOQ in spiked samples were found to be 0.02 and 0.05 μg/kg for both AFB1 and AFG1, 0.01 and 0.03 μg/kg for both AFB2 and AFG2. The mean recovery values were in range from 84.2% to 96.9% was obtained. Five samples were found to be contaminated with aflatoxins and the total aflatoxins ranged from 0.02 to 3.26 μg/kg were obtained. Nineteen different samples were found to be contaminated with aflatoxins;the total aflatoxins ranged from 0.27 to 10.48 μg/kg were obtained. The highest total aflatoxins value was obtained in animal feeds.

Aflatoxins,hepatocellular carcinoma and public health

Hepatocellular carcinoma(HCC) is one of the leading causes of cancer deaths worldwide,primarily affecting populations in the developing countries.Aflatoxin,a food contaminant produced by the fungi Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus,is a known human carcinogen that has been shown to be a causative agent in the pathogenesis of HCC.Aflatoxin can affect a wide range of food commodities including corns,oilseeds,spices,and tree nuts as well as milk,meat,and dried fruit.Many factors affect the growth of Aspergillus fungi and the level of aflatoxin contamination in food.Drought stress is one of the factors that increase susceptibility of plants to Aspergillus and thus aflatoxin contamination.A recent drought is thought to be responsible for finding of trace amounts of aflatoxin in some of the corn harvested in the United States.Although it's too soon to know whether aflatoxin will be a significant problem,since United States is the world's largest corn producer and exporter,this has raised alarm bells.Strict regulations and testing of finished foods and feeds in the United States should prevent a major health scare,and prevent human exposure to deleterious levels of aflatoxin.Unfortunately,such regulations and testing are not in place in many countries.The purpose of this editorial is to summarize the current knowledge on association of aflatoxin and HCC,encourage future research and draw attention to this global public health issue.

Aflatoxins metabolism, effects on epigenetic mechanisms and their role in carcinogenesis

Chronic consumption of aflatoxin-contaminated foods is a global problem in both developing and developed countries especially where there is poor regulation of their levels in foods. In the body, aflatoxins (AFBs) mainly AFB1 are biotransformed to various metabolites especially the active AFB1-exo-8,9-epoxide (AFBO). The AFB, AFBO and other metabolites interact with various biomolecules in the body including nucleic acids such as DNA and RNA and the various metabolic pathways such as protein synthesis, glycolytic pathway and electron transport chain involved in ATP production in body cells. The AFB interacts with DNA to form AFB-DNA adducts causing DNA breakages. The AFB and its metabolites induce the up regulation of nuclear receptors such as pregnane X receptor (PXR), constitutive androstane receptor (CAR), and aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) through gene expression that regulates the metabolizing enzymes such as CYP450 involved in Phase I and Phase II metabolism of xenobiotics. AFB activates these nuclear receptors to produce the metabolizing enzymes. The AFB1 is metabolized in the body by cytochrome P450 (CYP450) enzyme isoforms such as CYP1A2, CYP1A2, CYP3A4/ CYP3A5, and CYP3A7 in fetus, glutathione S-transferase, aflatoxin B1-aldehyde reductase leading to reactive metabolites, some of which can be used as aflatoxin exposure biomarkers. These enzymes are involved in the Phase I and Phase II metabolic reactions of aflatoxins. The CYP1A2 is the principal metabolizer of aflatoxin at low concentrations while the reverse is true for CYP3A4. The accumulation of AFB and its metabolites in the body especially the AFB1-exo-8,9-epoxide depletes the glutathione (GSH) due to the formation of high amounts of epoxides and other reactive oxygen species (ROS). The AFB, AFB1-exo-8,9-epoxide and other metabolites also affect the epigenetic mechanisms including the DNA methylation, histone modifications, maturation of miRNAs as well as the daily formation of single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) where AFB exposure may facilitate the process and induces G:C to T:A transversions at the third base in codon 249 of TP53 causing p53 mutations reported in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). The changes in epigenetic mechanisms lead to either epigenetic inactivation or epigenetic derepression and all these affect the gene expression, cellular differentiation and growth. AFB also through epigenetic mechanisms promotes tumorigenesis, angiogenesis, invasion and metastasis in hepatocellular carcinoma. However, the formation of the small amounts of AFB1 from AFB2 is suspected to cause the carcinogenicity of AFB2 in humans and animals. Chronic aflatoxins exposure leads to formation of reactive AFBO metabolites in the body that could activate and de-activates the various epigenetic mechanisms leading to development of various cancers.

Review on microbial degradation of zearalenone and aflatoxins

The widespread contamination by mycotoxins,especially zearalenone and aflatoxins,in crops and their by-products has caused severe undesirable effects on human health and commercial trade.Researchers had screened out microorganisms from various media for degrading zearalenone and aflatoxins,and the results of a lot of studies showed that enzymes derived from microbial strains play a key role in degrading mycotoxins.Genetic engineering technology had been applied to improve the heterologously expressed degrading enzymes in several mature microbial hosts such as Escherichia coli and Pichia pastoris.The separated and purified recombinant enzyme had high activity in degrading mycotoxins in vitro.This review summarized the types of mycotoxins-degrading microorganisms and enzymes,and the progress on synthesis of heterologously expressed degrading enzymes by genetic engineering technology as well as related researches on improving the effect of degrading enzymes.We also prospected the future development in the study of using recombinant enzymes formed by genetic engineering technology to realize the simultaneous degradation of multiple mycotoxins in crops.

Effect of Fermentation Process on Nutritional Composition and Aflatoxins Concentration of Doklu,a Fermented Maize Based Food

Investigations were carried out to determine the influence of spontaneous fermentations as achieved at household level on the nutrients composition and aflatoxins concentration of maize during the processing into doklu, a fermented maize food product consumed in Cote d’Ivoire with legumes, soup and fried fish. Results showed that maize grains contained aflatoxin B1, G1 and G2 and that during fermentation all physicochemical parameters significantly (P ≤ 0.05) decreased except moisture and total titratable acidity contents which were significantly (P ≤ 0.05) increased. Fermentation also caused significant reduction in the concentration of total aflatoxins (72%), with the most important reduction in aflatoxin B1 (80%) after the soaking of maize grains. However, no aflatoxin was detected after 24 hours of fermentation until the final product was obtained. Despite the losses in some nutritional compounds, the fermented product, doklu, was found to have appreciable nutritional quality.

In vitro activity of neem oil [Azadirachta indica A. Juss (Meliaceae)] on Aspergillus flavus growth, sporulation, viability of spores, morphology and Aflatoxins B1 and B2 production

The effectiveness of neem (Azadiracta indica) oil on the growth, morphology, sporulation, viability of spores, aflatoxin B1 and B2 production by A. flavus on Yeast Extract-Sucrose medium was determined. Neem oil inhibited the fungal growth (i.e. mycelia dry weight, diameter of colony and growth rate) on solid media at concentrations from 0.5 to 5.0% v/v, although it significantly increased sporulation in the same conditions. Spores obtained from cultures grown without neem oil reduced germination when incubated in a neem oil supplemented medium. Colonies grown on solid media and in submerged cultures in the presence of neem oil exhibited morphological alterations, including granular cytoplasm, atypical hyphae branching pattern, abnormal and undifferentiated conidiophores. High Performance Liquid Chromatography was used to measure aflatoxins. In submerged cultures, neem oil at concentrations from 0.5 to 4.0% v/v caused approximately 95% inhibition in Aflatoxin B1 and B2. On other hand, these conditions failed to suppress fungal growth. Current research emphasized that neem oil was not fungistatic or fungicidal, but exhibited anti-aflatoxigenic activity.

Prevalence of Aflatoxins in Smoked-Dried and Fresh Fish in Zambia

The food contamination is a critical public health concern at the global level. The aflatoxins are considerable food contaminants and health menace to a sizable world population. Aflatoxins originate from fungi as their toxic secondary metabolites. This study aimed to probe the contamination level of aflatoxins in smoked-dried fish and the extent of the threat it might pose on human health. The study considered five of the regularly consumed species of smoked-dried fish. The study also considered two species of fresh fish. The investigation was carried out using VICAM Series-4EX Fluorometer. The Buka fish sample had the lowest concentration of 1.3 ppb for total aflatoxins, and Bream fish was analyzed to have the highest as 3.84 ppb. As such, the total aflatoxin concentration in this study was found to be between 1.3 and 3.84 ppb. These concentrations can be considered to be a matter of concern. Prolonged intake of the aflatoxins in this range may result in a health hazard to humans. As expected, there was no trace of aflatoxins detected in fresh fish samples.

Porous metal-organic framework as sorbent and LC-MS/MS as detector to identify aflatoxins in peanut

Aflatoxins are the most potent spontaneous carcinogen known as secondary metabolite. Aflatoxins detection in peanut is challenging on account of inherent complexity of high fatty matrices. A modified Quick Easy Cheap Effective Rugged Safe (QuECh-ERS) method couple with liquid chromatograph-mass spectrometer (LC-MS/MS) has been developed to monitor aflatoxins in peanut. It?s a simple and rapid sample preparation for aflatoxins analysis compared with common method. Microporous metal-organic framework MIL-101 (Cr) was used as absorbent in this research. Promising properties of high porosity and surface area endowed MIL-101 (Cr) with efficiently aflatoxin enrichment with other matrix exclusion from high fatty sample. Negligible matrix effect was observed due to efficient extract clean up with MIL-101 sorbent. Recoveries ranged from 73.5% to 98.4% for aflatoxins, with relative standard deviations less than 7%. Limit of detection (LOD) and limit of quantitation (LOQ) for aflatoxins in peanut were 0.05-0.1 μg/kg and 0.2-0.6 μg/kg respectively.By using method described in this research, 15 real samples were successfully analyzed in which 6 samples were contaminated. MIL-101(Cr) was used to reduce matrix effect and develop a quick and effective method for aflatoxins detection in peanut via LC-MS/MS for the first time.

Isolation and Identification of Specific Pathogens, Presence of Antibiotics, Aflatoxins, Pesticide Residues and Industrial Contaminants in Supply Chain of Milk in Selected Coastal Districts of Andhra Pradesh

A research study was undertaken to carry out isolation and identification of specific pathogens, presence of antibiotics, aflatoxins, pesticide residues and industrial contaminants in supply chain of milk in selected coastal districts of Andhra Pradesh. The milk is a whole food;it is categorized under perishable foods as it is biologically nutrient liquid that supports the growth of wide variety of microorganisms and is susceptible to spoilage. The quality of milk can be affected by the presence of additional water, detergents, disinfectants, antibiotics, pesticides and pathogens like bacteria, viruses, toxins released by molds such as aflatoxins and heavy metals etc. The raw milk is usually colonized by pathogens like Campylobacter jejuni, enterohemorrhagic Escherichia. coli, Salmonella typhimurium, Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus and Yersinia enterocolitica. The milk samples were collected from vendors of East and West Godavari, Visakhapatnam, Vizianagaram and Srikakulam districts. The milk samples were found to be positive for Tetracycline and Beta lactam antibiotics. The Aspergillus flavus was identified and the colonies producing aflatoxin M1 appeared in yellow color on the Aspergillus agar (M1127). The pesticides and heavy metals in raw and chilled milk samples were detected by atomic absorption spectrophotometer. The pesticide residues were found in raw and chilled milk samples include Lindane, Endosulfan, Chlorane, Heptachlor and Methoxchlor. The heavy metals like lead, arsenic, zinc and mercury residues were found to occur in raw and chilled milk samples. The hygienic quality of the milk in the current study was found to be poor due to exceeding the standard limits in number of specific pathogens, antibiotic, aflatoxin M1, pesticide and heavy metal residues. Immediate measures are needed to be taken to ensure safety of raw milk in public point of view in Visakhapatnam, East & West Godavari regions.

Quantification of aflatoxins and health risk assessment through intake of herbal medicine formulations

Aflatoxins(AFs)are frequent contaminants of herbs,which pose a health risk to regular consumers.This study quantified AFs(AFB1,AFB2,AFG1,AFG2,and Total AFs)in 100 of frequently used herbal medicine formulations in Northern Jordan,and assessed the health risk associated with its intake.About half of the samples had levels lower than the detection limit,while the concentrations of AFB1 and Total AFs were higher than the European limits in 10%and 23%of the collected samples,respectively.The mean average daily dose(ADD)of AFB1 through the consumption of the formulations was 3.32×10^(-6)and ranged between 1.21×10^(-9)and 0.00045 ng/kg bwt/day,while the mean ADD of Total AFs was 6.80×10^(-5)and ranged between 3.21×10^(-9)and 0.0015 ng/kg bwt/day.The margin of exposure(MOE)for each medicine herein was far greater than 10,000 as recommended by European Food Safety Authority(EFSA)for carcinogenic and genotoxic substances.Estimated cancer risk due to life time exposure to AFB1 in herbal medicines was 1.03×10^(-5)(ranged between 4.51×10^(-4)to 1.19×10^(-9)cancers/10^(5) individuals/75 year).The frequent occurrence of AFs in the analyzed samples raised questions on their potential harmful consequences on heavy consumers,and suggested that further official measures could minimize contamination and improve management of the associated cancer risk.

Terahertz toroidal dipole metamaterial sensors for detection of aflatoxin B1

Terahertz metamaterial biosensors have attracted significant attention in the biological field due to their advantages of label-free,real-time and in situ detection.In this paper,a highly sensitive metamaterial sensor with semi-ring mirror symmetry based on toroidal dipole resonance is designed for a new metamaterial biosensor.It is shown that a refractive index sensitivity of 337.5 GHz per refractive index unit can be achieved under an analyte of saturated thickness near a 1.33 THz transmission dip.For biosensor samples where aflatoxin B1 is dropped on the metamaterial surface in our experiment,dip amplitudes of transmission varying from 0.1904 to 0.203 and 0.2093 are observed as aflatoxin B1 concentrations are altered from 0 to 0.001μg·ml-1 and to 0.01μg·ml-1,respectively.Furthermore,when aflatoxin B1 concentrations are 0.1μg·ml-1,1μg·ml-1,10μg·ml-1 and 100μg·ml-1,dip amplitudes of 0.2179,0.226,0.2384 and 0.2527 and dip redshifts of 10.1 GHz,20.1 GHz,27.7 GHz and 37.6 GHz are respectively observed.These results illustrate high-sensitivity,label-free detection of aflatoxin B1,enriching the applications of sensors in the terahertz domain.

Foodborne toxin Aflatoxin B_(1)induced glomerular podocyte inflammation through proteolysis of RelA,downregulation of miR-9 and CXCR4/TXNIP/NLRP3 pathway

Aflatoxin B_(1)(AFB_(1))is a naturally-occurring mycotoxin and recognized as the most toxic foodborne toxin,particularly causing damages to kidney.Glomerular podocytes are terminally differentiated epithelial cells.AFB_(1)induces podocyte inflammation,proteinuria and renal dysfunction.Studying the mechanism of AFB_(1)-induced podocyte inflammation and murine kidney dysfunction,we detected that AFB_(1)increased ubiquitindependent degradation of the transcription factor RelA through enhanced interaction of RelA with E3 ubiquitin ligase tripartite motif containing 7(TRIM7)in mouse podocyte clone-5(MPC-5)and mouse glomeruli.Reduction of RelA resulted in decreasing microRNA-9(miR-9)and activating the chemokine receptor 4(CXCR4),thioredoxin interacting protein(TXNIP),and NOD-like receptor pyrin domain-containing 3(NLRP3)signaling axis(CXCR4/TXNIP/NLRP3 pathway),leading to podocyte inflammation.We also determined that downregulation of miR-9 led to CXCR4 expression and the downstream TXNIP/NLRP3 pathway activation.Overexpression of miR-9 or deletion of CXCR4 suppressed AFB_(1)-induced CXCR4/TXNIP/NLRP3 pathway,resulting in alleviating podocyte inflammation and kidney dysfunction.Our findings indicated that ubiquitin-dependent proteolysis of RelA,downregulation of miR-9,and activation of CXCR4/TXNIP/NLRP3 pathway played an essential role in AFB_(1)-induced glomerular podocyte inflammation.Our study revealed a novel mechanism,via RelA,for the control of AFB_(1)’s nephrotoxicity,leading to an effective protection of food safety and public health.

Underwater Superoleophobic-Oleophilic Chips for Femtomolar Aflatoxins Identification

Underwater superoleophobic-oleophilic chips were developed to achieve oil extracting from aqueous solution and oil-droplet con-densing to preset microwell.The double-hierarchical(extracting-condensing)enrichment strategy drastically improves the sensitivi-ty for organic contaminants or components,whose signal amplification approaches 459.7 times that of primary solution and 25.9 times that of single condensing enrichment strategy.Low to femtomolar limit of detection(2.6×10^(-15)mol/L)sensitivity and 6 vari-ous aflatoxins or mildewed foods identification demonstrate the significance and promotion for environment monitoring,water pu-rification,and so on.

Occurrence of mycotoxins in food,feed,and milk in two counties from different agro-ecological zones and with historical outbreak of aflatoxins and fumonisins poisonings in Kenya

Aflatoxins and fumonisins contaminate cereals during pre-and post-harvest periods.In this study,household or market maize,sorghum,millet,cow or goat milk,and animal feed samples collected from two counties(Makueni and Nandi)of Kenya and were analyzed for aflatoxins and fumonisins using competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and confirmation with high performance liquid chromatography.There was a significant difference(P<0.005)in the levels of aflatoxins between the home grown and market-sourced maize,sorghum,and millet samples.In Makueni,24.8%of home maize and 44.6%of the market maize samples exceeded the 10 ppb limit for aflatoxins.In all,93%and 90%of the maize samples were contaminated with fumonisins and 34%and 6%exceeded the 2 ppm limit in Makueni and Nandi,respectively;30%and 37%of homegrown sorghum and millet samples exceeded the 10 ppb limit for aflatoxin in Makueni and Nandi,respectively;and 89%and 81%of homegrown millet samples in Makueni and Nandi,respectively,were positive for fumonisins and 22%and 7%in Makueni and Nandi,respectively,exceeded the 2 ppm fumonisins limit.In total,52%and 87%of the milk samples in Nandi and Makueni,respectively,were contaminated with aflatoxin M1 and 8%of the samples from Makueni exceeded the 50 ppt limit.There is an urgent need to build capacity among the households on cheap,practical,and effective technologies that would reduce the proportions of food samples contaminated with aflatoxins and fumonisins.

Exposure of Kenyan population to aflatoxins in foods with special reference to Nandi and Makueni counties

Aflatoxins cause acute and chronic health and production effects in humans and animals,respectively.This study reports on the exposure of the Kenyan population to the two mycotoxins in two counties(Nandi and Makueni)using children younger than 5 years as the proxy.A questionnaire was administered,which captured knowledge of the incidences of acute aflatoxin poisoning,food consumption patterns.Analysis of aflatoxin in samples of urine,breast milk,maize,sorghum,and millet was done using cELISA and HPLC.Maize and sorghum are used in the weaning formula of children.The difference in consumption of maize-and sorghum-based diets in children between younger than 1 and between 1 and 5 years was significant with P=0.037 and P=0.002,respectively,in Nandi and Makueni.In children younger than 5 years,the consumption of maize ranged from 0.1 to 0.25 kg per person per day in Nandi and Makueni with an aflatoxin exposure rate of 0.011 and 0.49μg per kg body weight(bwt)per day,respectively.The exposure to aflatoxin through milk for children younger than 5 years was 4×10^(−4) and 1×10^(−4)μg per kg bwt per day in Makueni and Nandi,respectively.The exposure of nursing children through breast milk was 6×10^(−3) and 1×10^(−6)μg per kg bwt per day in Makueni and Nandi,respectively.Children younger than 30 months in Makueni had 1.4 times higher levels of aflatoxin M1(AFM1)in urine than those of the same age in Nandi.The stunting and severe stunting rates in Makueni and Nandi were 28.7%,18.5%and 30.7%,16.5%,respectively.Thus,there is need for urgent mitigation measures,a constant surveillance program,strict regulations,and awareness creation directed at poor households to reduce dietary exposure to mycotoxins.

Effects of aflatoxins on growth performance and skeletal muscle of Cherry Valley meat male ducks

This study aims to evaluate the effects of aflatoxins on growth performance and skeletal muscle of Cherry Valley meat male ducks as they grow and develop. One-day-old healthy meat male ducks(n = 180) were randomly divided into 2 groups; there were 6 replicates in each group and 15 ducks in each replicate. The control group was fed a basic diet, and the experimental group was fed a mold-exposed cottonseed meal diet containing aflatoxins instead of normal cottonseed meal. The experimental period was 35 days, and divided into two stages of 1 to 14 days(early stage) and 15 to 35 days(late stage). During the experimental period, live weight, breast muscle weight and thigh muscle weight of meat male ducks were measured weekly. Results showed as follows: 1) aflatoxins contained in the mold-exposed diet significantly reduced daily weight gain and feed intake, and increased feed-to-gain ratio of meat male ducks at different ages(P < 0.05); 2) the Gompertz equation(W_t = W_m exp {-exp [-B(t-t~*)]}) could successfully fit the growth curve and growth and developmental patterns of skeletal muscles of Cherry Valley meat male ducks(R^2≥0.97); 3) the relationship between chest muscle and live weight was the best described by a power regression and polynomial regression(R^2 = 0.99); the relationship between live weight and thigh muscle weight was the best described by linear regression, polynomial regression, and power regression(R^2 = 0.99); 4) aflatoxins in the mold-exposed diet significantly reduced live weight, breast muscle weight and thigh muscle weight of Cherry Valley meat male ducks at various ages; and 5) aflatoxins delayed the age at peak in growth of meat male ducks, and reduced weights at the peak for breast muscle, thigh muscle and whole body as well as the maximal daily weight gain. In summary,aflatoxins delayed growth of Cherry Valley meat male ducks and development of skeletal muscle.

Recent progress of the effect of environmental factors on Aspergillus flavus growth and aflatoxins production on foods

The contamination of Aspergillus flavus and subsequent aflatoxins(AFs)has been considered as one of the most serious food safety problems due to their acute and chronic adverse effects on humans and animals.This review collects the available information from recent years on the effect of the major environmental factors such as water activity(a_(w)),temperature,CO_(2),and pH on the fungal growth,the expression of AFs-related genes,and AFs production by A.flavus on foods.In particular,the relationship between the relative expression of key regulatory(aflR and aflS)and structural genes(aflD,aflO,aflQ,etc.)and AFs production under different environmental conditions are collected and discussed.The information collected in this review can be used to design control strategies of A.flavus and AFs contamination in practical applications,primarily during storage and processing.These data suggest that integrating various post-harvest methods with synergistic functions may be more efficient for the control of A.flavus growth and AFs production,although the individual environmental factors alone have an impact.

Spectrofluorimetry and High-Performance Liquid Chromatography in the Detection of Aflatoxins in Chinese Medicinal Materials

Objective: To analyze the effect of spectrofluorimetry and highperformance liquid chromatography in the detection of aflatoxin in Chinese medicinal materials. Methods: The content of aflatoxin in Chinese medicinal materials was determined by spectrofluorimetry and high-performance liquid chromatography respectively, and the effects of the two detection methods were compared. Results: The results of sample detection by spectrofluorimetry showed that except for Angelica and Sophora flavescens with "detection dada error", the other 25 kinds of Chinese medicinal materials were positive for aflatoxin, but the types of aflatoxin derivatives could not be distinguished, and the tested content was generally high. The recovery experiment of mixed reference substance based on the concentration levels showed that the recovery rate of aflatoxin was 93.60%-99.70% in the case of high-performance liquid chromatography,and the RSD was 1.83%-6.70%. The sample detection results by high-performance liquid chromatography showed that among the 18 kinds of Chinese medicinal materials,only Radix Peucedani, almond, barley, raw Jianqu and aflatoxin were positive, and the types of aflatoxin derivatives could be accurately differentiated. Conclusion: Compared with spectrofluorimetry, high-performance liquid chromatography is more accurate in the determination of aflatoxin content in Chinese medicinal materials, which can distinguish the types of aflatoxin derivatives.

Impact of mycotoxins and their metabolites associated with food grains

Mycotoxins are secondary toxic metabolites synthesized by numerous filamentous fungi including members of the genus Fusarium,Penicillium,Drechslera,Aspergillus,Claviceps,Monascum,Alternaria,Cephalosporium,Nigrospora,and Trichoderma.Among them,Aspergillus and Fusarium species are major plant pathogens recognized to induce infection and produce mycotoxins in food crops.More than 400 mycotoxins have been documented and among them,aflatoxin,fumonisins,trichothecenes,zearalenone,ochratoxin A,citrinin,ergot alkaloids,and patulin are the most prominent compounds linked to a variety of human and animal health disorders.Genus Fusarium and Aspergillus belong to a saprophytic group,which can infect and contaminate many crops at pre and post-harvest stages.Mycotoxins can have a variety of negative effects on health in both humans and animals.Mycotoxins and their metabolites can cause severe acute poisoning,which can result in death,as well as long-term negative health effects,such as cancer and immune-suppressive disorders in living beings(animals and humans).Mycotoxin contamination of agricultural goods has gained global significance,due to its toxic effects on living beings,as well as its importance to international trade.Our objective is to provide a consolidated information on the potential mycotixs in food grains and their significant impact on the health of the human beings.

Assessment of the Aflatoxin Content of Maize Flours Produced in the Commune of Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso

Aflatoxins are toxic metabolites present in various foods, especially when production and conservation do not respect good hygiene practices (GHP). In Ouagadougou, maize flour is produced and sold in different structures by actors who do not always respect GHP. Thus, it is necessary to regularly control the quality of these flours. So, this is carried out with the aim to assess the aflatoxin content of maize flours produced in the municipality of Ouagadougou. For this, twenty-eight (28) samples were collected from households, markets and supermarkets in the city of Ouagadougou. Thus, LC/MS/MS analysis was used to assess the aflatoxin content of the samples. The results obtained reveal the presence of total aflatoxins (AFT) in 78.57% of samples analyzed with levels ranging from 0.89 to 64.25 μg/kg. The prevalence of different types of aflatoxins were 57.14% for aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), 46.43% for aflatoxin B2 (AFB2), 42.86% for aflatoxin G1 (AFG1) and 4.6% for aflatoxin G2 (AFG2). The results also show that 80% and 60% of market samples, 70% and 30% of household samples and 37.5% and 25% of supermarket samples do not comply with European Commission standards for AFT and AFB1 respectively. For all the samples, 60.71% and 42.86% of the samples are compliant according to the limits established by the European Commission (EC) respectively for AFB1 and AFT. Regarding the results obtained, producers and processors must be supervised and trained in GHP for the production of better-quality flours.