Changes in soil carbon stocks and related soil properties along a 50-year grassland-to-cropland conversion chronosequence in an agro-pastoral ecotone of Inner Mongolia,China

Land use change significantly influences soil properties. There is little information available on the long-term effects of post-reclamation from grassland to cropland on soil properties. We compared soil carbon （C） and nitrogen （N） storage and related soil properties in a 50-year cultivation chronosequence of grassland in the agro-pastoral ecotone of Inner Mongolia. Field surveys on land use changes during the period of 1955-2002 were conducted to build a chronosequence of cropland of different ages since the conversion from grassland. The results showed that soil C and N storage, soil texture, and soil nutrient contents varied with land use types and cropland ages （P〈0.01）. In the 0-30 cm soil layer, the soil organic carbon （SOC） density was significantly lower in the crop- lands （3.28 kg C/m2 for C50 soil） than in the grasslands （6.32 kg C/m2）. After 5, 10, 15, 20, 35, and 50 years of crop planting （years since the onset of cultivation）, the SOC losses were 17%, 12%, 19%, 47%, 46%, and 48%, respec- tively, compared with the grasslands. The soil total nitrogen （TN） density of the grasslands was 65 g N/m2, and TN density of the cropland soil was 35 g N/m2 after 50 years of crop planting. Both the SOC and TN densities could be quantitatively determined by a negative exponential function of cropland age （P〈0.0001, R2=0.8528; P〈0.0001, R2=0.9637）. The dissolved organic carbon （DOC） content, pH value were decreased; and the soil bulk density and soil available potassium （AK） content, clay content, and sand content were increased since the conversion of grassland into cropland during the 50-year period. Our results show soil nutrients were higher in grassland than in cropland. The conversion of grasslands to croplands induced a loss of soil C storage and changes of related soil properties. The reclamation time of cultivated soil （cropland age） had significant effects on soil properties in the study area.

Evaluation of Land Reclamation and Implications of Ecological Restoration for Agro-pastoral Ecotone: Case Study of Horqin Left Back Banner in China

The agro-pastoral ecotone has been recognized as the main distribution area of reserved land resource for cultivation. Accordingly, clarifying this assumption, as well as concerting land reclamation and ecological restoration, is important to ensure food security and environmental improvement in the agro-pastoral ecotone. We selected Horqin Left Back Banner(HLBB) as the subject of our case study. The landscape ecological security pattern of this area was determined using the minimum cumulative resistance model. Over-cultivation, quantity of reserved land resource for cultivation, and changes in landscape indexes before and after land use adjustment were then analyzed. Over-cultivation is a serious problem in the agro-pastoral ecotone. Reserved land resource for cultivation is less than that considered previously, and the area of reserved land resource for cultivation in HLBB only accounts for 11.50% of total uncultivated land. With regard to changes in landscape indexes, the adjusted land use pattern is effective for anti-desertification. The compensation standard for abandoned cultivated land should be improved and the comprehensive results of ‘Grain for Green' should be evaluated to further implement ecological restoration in the agro-pastoral ecotone.

Agricultural Vulnerability to Drought in China's Agro-pastoral Ecotone:A Case Study of Yulin City,Shaanxi Province

Agro-pastoral ecotone of northern China is the prominent area for agricultural production,but it is also the most typical ecological fragile area with frequent drought disasters.Taking Yulin City at Shaanxi Province in China as the case area,the paper aims to investigate the spatio-temporal changes of agricultural vulnerability to drought in China’s agro-pastoral ecotone in the period 2000 to2020.The results show that:1)the agricultural vulnerability to drought in Yulin City has shifted from high vulnerability in the period2000–2010 to low vulnerability in the period 2011–2020.2)There exist obvious spatio-temporal differences of the agricultural vulnerability to drought in Yulin City during the research period.3)Four sensitive events and 14 resilient events were identified in the research and the crops of Yulin had become more resilient to drought.Finally,the paper put forward with policy implications to make adaptive strategies of agriculture to climate change in China’s agro-pastoral ecotone in the future,e.g.,carrying out agricultural zoning based on agricultural production conditions,intensifying the construction of disaster prevention and relief system,and integrating with modern agricultural technology to develop new type agriculture.

Wavelet analysis of spring climate characteristics in arid aeolian area of agro-pastoral ecotone in China

The unique regional climate characteristics are among the main reasons for the frequent wind-sand activity in arid and cold areas in the agro-pastoral ecotone in Inner Mongolia, China. This paper focuses on the time series of temperature and precipitation in spring when sandstorms often occur in the area. Based on meteorological data for a 46-year period from 1959 to 2004, multi-scale variations and abrupt changes in temperature and precipitation were analyzed with the Mexican hat function （MHF） wavelet method, showing the multi-scale variation characteristics of temperature and precipitation, as well as the periods and change points at different time scales. The relationship between temperature and precipitation was obtained using the wavelet analysis method. Obvious staggered features of the variations of spring temperature and precipitation were observed in this agro-pastoral ecotone. The strongest oscillation periods of spring temperature variations were 1 and 22 years, while for precipitation, the strongest oscillation periods of variations were 2, 8, and 22 years. In addition, lower spring temperature corresponded to lower precipitation, whereas higher temperature yielded higher precipitation rate.

Strategies for Prioritizing Ecological Construction with Consideration of Agricultural Industry Development in Northern China’s Agro- pastoral Ecotone : A Perspective of Opportunity Cost

In northern China’s agro-pastoral ecotone,there are conflicts between agricultural industry and ecological construction resource competition,and also problems urgently to be solved for economic growth and sustainable ecological improvement.Taking the development concept of"lucid waters and lush mountains being mountains of gold and silver"as the guiding principle of prioritizing ecological and green development,this paper studied the strategies for prioritizing ecological construction with consideration of economic development of agricultural industry from the perspective of opportunity cost.Through the analysis of opportunity cost,externality,and Pareto optimal theory,and using the calculation method of the unit equivalent factor value of terrestrial ecological service function,this paper calculated the ecological service value of forest,grassland,and farmland.It found that the ecological value of forest and grassland per unit area was greater than the ecological value of agricultural industry.This indicates that the opportunity cost of farmland for ecological construction was less than that of agricultural industry.Based on the theoretical and quantitative analysis,it came up with recommendations for establishing a comprehensive system for prioritizing ecological construction with consideration of agricultural industry development and establishing and improving the incentive mechanism of ecological construction.

Land engineering and its role for sustainable agriculture in the agro-pastoral ecotone:A case study of Yulin, Shaanxi Province, China

With global climate change, the agricultural light-temperature potential productivity in the agro-pastoral ecotone has increased. This offers a good opportunity to develop agriculture in the agro-pastoral ecotone. However, the agro-pastoral ecotone is also an ecologically fragile area in which land degradation challenges agricultural development. As population grows and the need for food increases, the land carrying capacity of the agro-pastoral ecotone becomes insufficient, and the human–land relationship is not harmonious. Such conditions have limited the agricultural and rural development in the ecotone. The paper demonstrates how land engineering may improve land quality and support agricultural development in the ecotone based on studies at a research station established in 2015 in Yulin,Shaanxi Province, China. The studies target three factors: soil improvement, crop selection,and field management. The results show that:(1) The highest yield of crops planted on improved land is close to or even higher than that achieved under previous crop growth conditions. For instance, the corn yields can exceed 25%.(2) The potatoes grown on the improved land yield the highest gross income, reaching 67,200 yuan/ha. By way of land engineering,input costs can be balanced in 3–5 years.(3) As a result of land engineering, some villages in Yulin City have realized sustainable agricultural and even rural development, and promotion of this model will support the sustainable development of agriculture in the agro-pastoral ecotone.

Exploring the spatio-temporal impacts of farmland reforestation on ecological connectivity using circuit theory:A case study in the agro-pastoral ecotone of North China

Farmland reforestation can contribute substantially to ecological restoration.Previous studies have extensively examined the ecological effects of farmland reforestation,but few of them have investigated the spatiotemporal responses of broad-scale landscape connectivity to reforestation.By using a typical agro-pastoral ecotone in northern China as a case study,we addressed this issue based on an innovative integration of circuit theory approach and counterfactual analysis.The forest connectivity through multiple dispersal pathways was measured using the circuit theory approach,and its spatiotemporal changes after reforestation were evaluated by counterfactual analysis.The results showed that from 2000–2015,the reforested farmland occupied 2095 km^2,and 12.5% was on steeply sloped land.Farmland reforestation caused a greater increase in ecological connectivity by adding new ecological corridors and stepping stones in scattered forest areas rather than in areas with dense forest distributions.The newly added corridors and stepping stones were fragmented,short and narrow and thus deserve powerful protection.Future reforestation to improve landscape connectivity should highlight pinch point protection and obstacle removal as well as the tradeoff between farmland loss and farmer survival.Our findings are expected to inform the optimization of the Grain for Green policy from the perspective of broad-scale biodiversity conservation.

Impacts of regional land-use patterns on ecosystem services in the typical agro-pastoral ecotone of northern China

A comprehensive understanding of the spatial-temporal evolution and driving forces on ecosystem services(ES)is essential for the agro-pastoral ecotone’s ecological security in northern China.However,the land-use pattern(LULC)agglomeration with spatial differentiation in the pastoral and agricultural areas has been rarely concerned.Taking distinct LULC(1980-2018)in Chifeng as an example,we compared four crucial categories of ESs with InVEST.Using SEM,we further contrasted the effects of several variables on regional ES variations in pastoral-dominated(North)and agriculture-dominated(South)regions,respectively.Results revealed the conversion between forest and grassland oriented the LULC transformation in the North.In contrast,human-activitiy-oriented land tended to occupy environmentally sensitive places in the South.Similar ES variations were supplied with the North outperforming the South when soil conservation was omitted.As for the impacts of regional ES variations,the natural and LULC policies both showed positive effects,whereas the anthropogenic factors showed positive in the North,which was negative in the South.Therefore,the ecologicallymaintained-dominant and ecologically-restored-dominant strategies should be separately adopted in the North and South.Our study provided appropriate regional ecological management suggestions for balancing the LULC-driven conflicts between ecological protection and regional development.

农牧交错区禁牧前后畜牧业投入产出分析--以宁夏盐池县为例

农牧交错带典型的过渡性特征决定了畜牧业在农牧民生产和生活中的重要地位,禁牧政策的实施对农村畜牧业发展的影响是显著的。本文以地处农牧交错带、于2001年11月成为禁牧试点县的宁夏盐池县为案例,在对69户农牧户的调查问卷进行统计和处理的基础上,从劳动力用工、物质和资金投入三个方面对禁牧前后畜牧业成本进行了对比分析。通过计算羔羊出栏、成羊出栏、毛(绒)、当年羔羊增值等收益得出每只羊的年收益,对比发现,畜牧业经营方式由自由放牧向舍饲养殖的转变使畜牧养殖的投入产出结构随之发生改变,净收益短期内呈现下降趋势,成为实现农民增收及生态恢复成果保护的一大挑战。

宁夏农牧交错区植被覆盖时空变化及成因分析

厘清人类活动和气候变化对宁夏农牧交错区植被覆盖度变化的共同影响对指导宁夏农牧交错区植被恢复具有重要的现实意义。基于Google Earth Engine(GEE)云平台,以宁夏农牧交错区1990-2020年陆地卫星地表反射率数据为基础,采用像元二分模型估算区域植被覆盖度并分析其时空变化规律,通过计算累积植被覆盖度的斜率变化率和残差分析确定人类活动对植被覆盖度的影响,运用相关分析法明确气候因素与植被覆盖度的相关性。结果表明,1)1990-2020年研究区年均植被覆盖度增加,增速为0.58%/a(P<0.05)。其中,1990-2000年年均植被覆盖度无显著变化(P>0.05),2000-2020年年均植被覆盖度显著增加(P<0.05),增速达到1.04%/a。2)空间上,研究区年均植被覆盖度由北向南逐渐递增,植被覆盖度恢复的区域面积大于退化面积,城镇的建城区是植被覆盖度显著降低的主要区域。3)人类活动是研究区植被覆盖度增加的主要影响因素,气象因素次之;气象因素中降雨量对植被覆盖度变化起主要作用。

基于遥感和GIS的农牧交错带生态资产定量评估——以宁夏盐池县为例

自2003年宁夏全境实行禁牧政策以来,处于农牧交错带的盐池县生态与环境变化受到广泛关注。利用2000年、2005年、2010年TM/ETM+和MODIS NDVI数据,定量反演生态参数,计算3个时点的生态资产,评估禁牧政策的环境影响。结果表明:盐池县生态资产总值分别为1.62×108、2.15×108、2.70×108元;生态系统服务功能中水土保持价值比重最大,其中贡献最大的土地利用/覆盖类型为占研究区总面积最大的草地;单位面积生态资产价值最高的为旱地,10 a间生态资产总体呈递增趋势,东南部黄土丘陵区增幅明显,说明过去10 a来禁牧政策有助于生态资产的增加,环境质量总体趋好。

宁夏农牧交错带村域景观演替及驱动机制

人类活动与景观格局的关系及其调控,一直是景观生态学研究的核心领域之一。农牧交错带因其环境波动、土地宜农宜牧和政策摇摆,自然生态和地方文化逐渐式微,保护和恢复现有的半自然景观以及由此产生的生物、生态和文化等功能的任务越来越紧迫。本研究以位于农牧交错带的宁夏盐池县皖记沟村为对象,运用遥感资料和访谈调查、地学考察相结合的方法,分析1964—2019年景观变化特征,探讨其景观演替规律及其自然和社会驱动机制,以及景观类型之间的互作机制。结果表明:研究期间,皖记沟村由草地、耕地、沙地为主的景观结构演变为以草地、灌木林地、沙地、耕地为主的景观结构,由景观功能分离竞争向初步整合转变,形成了草地-耕地-沙地-灌木林地等确定的演替路径。景观演变的主要驱动机制是政策、人类需求和环境的综合作用。政策往往通过大型的、集中的人类活动促进景观发生改变,而环境通过生态系统内在驱动力,促使景观朝着与本底条件相适应的方向演替。景观演替的主要机理是土壤物理结构变化引起的土壤水分变化以及能适应新环境的植被变化。在资源密度较低的农牧交错带,景观功能分离是引起土地沙化的主要原因之一,景观功能的整合、协同大大缓解了生态恶化的局面。将景观分离竞争转化为景观共生,实现景观类型的互补乃至与外来资源的整合,是维持农牧交错带可持续发展的关键途径。

Canopy structure:An intermediate factor regulating grassland diversity-function relationships under human disturbances

Grasslands are one of the largest coupled human-nature terrestrial ecosystems on Earth,and severe anthropogenic-induced grassland ecosystem function declines have been reported recently.Understanding factors influencing grassland ecosystem functions is critical for making sustainable management policies.Canopy structure is an important factor influencing plant growth through mediating within-canopy microclimate(e.g.,light,water,and wind),and it is found coordinating tightly with plant species diversity to influence forest ecosystem functions.However,the role of canopy structure in regulating grassland ecosystem functions along with plant species diversity has been rarely investigated.Here,we investigated this problem by collecting field data from 170 field plots distributed along an over 2000 km transect across the northern agro-pastoral ecotone of China.Aboveground net primary productivity(ANPP)and resilience,two indicators of grassland ecosystem functions,were measured from field data and satellite remote sensing data.Terrestrial laser scanning data were collected to measure canopy structure(represented by mean height and canopy cover).Our results showed that plant species diversity was positively correlated to canopy structural traits,and negatively correlated to human activity intensity.Canopy structure was a significant indicator for ANPP and resilience,but their correlations were inconsistent under different human activity intensity levels.Compared to plant species diversity,canopy structural traits were better indicators for grassland ecosystem functions,especially for ANPP.Through structure equation modeling analyses,we found that plant species diversity did not have a direct influence on ANPP under human disturbances.Instead,it had a strong indirect effect on ANPP by altering canopy structural traits.As to resilience,plant species diversity had both a direct positive contribution and an indirect contribution through mediating canopy cover.This study highlights that canopy structure is an important intermediate factor regulating grassland diversity-function relationships under human disturbances,which should be included in future grassland monitoring and management.