Thermal fatigue and wear of compacted graphite iron brake discs with various thermomechanical properties

The increase in payload capacity of trucks has heightened the demand for cost-effective yet high performance brake discs.In this work,the thermal fatigue and wear of compacted graphite iron brake discs were investigated,aiming to provide an experimental foundation for achieving a balance between their thermal and mechanical properties.Compacted graphite iron brake discs with different tensile strengths,macrohardnesses,specific heat capacities and thermal diffusion coefficients were produced by changing the proportion and strength of ferrite.The peak temperature,pressure load and friction coefficient of compacted graphite iron brake discs were analyzed through inertia friction tests.The morphology of thermal cracks and 3D profiles of the worn surfaces were also discussed.It is found that the thermal fatigue of compacted graphite iron discs is determined by their thermal properties.A compacted graphite iron with the highest specific heat capacity and thermal diffusion coefficient exhibits optimal thermal fatigue resistance.Oxidization of the matrix at low temperatures significantly weakens the function of alloy strengthening in hindering the propagation of thermal cracks.Despite the reduced hardness,increasing the ferrite proportion can mitigate wear loss resulting from low disc temperatures and the absence of abrasive wear.

Sustainable Biocomposites Materials for Automotive Brake Pad Application:An Overview

Research into converting waste into viable eco-friendly products has gained global concern.Using natural fibres and pulverized metallic waste becomes necessary to reduce noxious environmental emissions due to indiscriminately occupying the land.This study reviews the literature in the broad area of green composites in search of materials that can be used in automotive brake pads.Materials made by biocomposite,rather than fossil fuels,will be favoured.A database containing the tribo-mechanical performance of numerous potential components for the future green composite was established using the technical details of bio-polymers and natural reinforcements.The development of materials with diverse compositions and varying proportions is now conceivable,and these materials can be permanently connected in fully regulated processes.This explanation demonstrates that all of these variables affect friction coefficient,resistance to wear from friction and high temperatures,and the operating life of brake pads to varying degrees.In this study,renewable materials for the matrix and reinforcement are screened to determine which have sufficient strength,coefficient of friction,wear resistance properties,and reasonable costs,making them a feasible option for a green composite.The most significant,intriguing,and unusual materials used in manufacturing brake pads are gathered in this review,which also analyzes how they affect the tribological characteristics of the pads.

Numerical and Experimental Analysis of the Aerodynamic Torque for Axle-Mounted Train Brake Discs

As the velocity of a train increases,the corresponding air pumping power consumption of the brake discs increases proportionally.In the present experimental study,a standard axle-mounted brake disc with circumferential pillars was analyzed using a 1:1 scale model and a test rig in a wind tunnel.In particular,three upstream velocities were selected on the basis of earlier investigations of trains operating at 160,250,and 400 km/h,respectively.Moreover,3D steady computational fluid dynamics(CFD)simulations of the flow field were conducted to compare with the wind tunnel test outcomes.The results for a 3-car train at 180 km/h demonstrated:(1)good agreement between the air resistance torques obtained from the wind tunnel tests and the related numerical results,with differences ranging from 0.95%to 5.88%;(2)discrepancies ranging from 3.2 to 3.8 N·m;(3)cooling ribs contributing more than 60%of the air resistance torque;(4)the fast rotation of brake discs causing a significantly different flow field near the bogie area,resulting in 25 times more air pumping power loss than that obtained in the stationary brake-disc case.

An approach for simulating the air brake system of long freight trains based on fluid dynamics

Air brake systems are critical equipment for railway trains, which affects the running safety of the trains significantly. To study air braking characteristics of long freight trains, an approach for simulating air brake systems based on fuid dynamics theory was proposed. The structures and working mechanisms of locomotive and wagon air brakes are introduced, and mathematical models of the pipes, brake valves, reservoirs or chambers, cylinders, etc., are presented.Besides, the dynamic motions of parts in the main valve are considered. The simulation model of the whole air brake system is then formulated, and the solving method based on the finite-difference method is used. New efficient pipe boundary conditions without iterations are developed for brake pipes and branch pipes, which can achieve higher computational efficiency. The proposed approach for simulating the air brake system is validated by comparing with published measured data. Simulation results of different train formations indicate that models that consider the dynamic behavior of brake pipes are recommended for predicting the characteristics of long trains under service braking conditions.

Dynamic mechanical characteristics of NdFeB in electromagnetic brake

With the continuous development of artillery,the disadvantages of hydraulic recoil brakes gradually appear.At the same time,the appearance of high-performance Nd Fe B permanent magnet makes it possible to apply electromagnetic braking technology to recoil mechanism.In this paper,prototype tests of a certain artillery were carried out to verify the feasibility of the electromagnetic brake(EMB)and obtain the electromagnetic braking force.Due to the brittleness of Nd Fe B,in order to eliminate the worry about the safety of EMB,SHPB experiments of Nd Fe B were carried out.Then,based on the assumption of uniform crack distribution,the law of crack propagation and damage accumulation was described theoretically,and the damage constitutive model suitable for brittle materials was proposed by combining the Zhu-Wang-Tang(ZWT)equation.Finally,the numerical simulation model of the artillery prototype was established and through calculation,the dynamic mechanical characteristics of Nd Fe B in the prototype were analyzed.The calculation results show that the strength of Nd Fe B can meet the requirements of the use in the working process.From the perspective of damage factor,the damage value of the permanent magnet on the far right is larger,and the damage value of the inner ring gradually decreases to the outer ring.

A numerical method for the simulation of freight train emergency braking operations based on the UIC braked weight percentage

The present paper shows the development of a strategy for the calculation of the air brake forces of European freight trains. The model is built to upgrade the existing Politecnico di Torino longitudinal train dynamics(LTD) code LTDPoliTo, which was originally unable to account for air brake forces. The proposed model uses an empirical exponential function to calculate the air brake forces during the simulation, while the maximum normal force on the brake friction elements is calculated according to the indication of the vehicle braked weight percentage.Hence, the model does not require to simulate in detail the fluid dynamics in the brake pipe nor to precisely know the main parameters of the braking system mounted on each vehicle. The model parameters are tuned to minimize the difference between the braking distance computed by the LTDPoliTo code and the value prescribed by the UIC544-1 leaflet in emergency braking operations. Simulations are run for different configurations of freight train compositions including a variable number of Shimmns wagons trailed by an E402B locomotive at the head of the train, as suggested in a reference literature paper. The results of the proposed method are in good agreement with the target braking distances calculated according to the international rules.

A simplified pneumatic model for air brake of passenger trains

Braking system performance is relevant for both railway safety and network optimization. Most trains employ air brake systems;air brake systems of freight trains mostly cannot achieve a synchronous application of brake forces, which is usually customary for passenger trains. The paper generalizes a previous air brake pneumatic model to passenger trains and describes the needed modifications. Among them, the way the pressure reduces in the brake pipe is generalized. Moreover, this paper reports an analytical bi-dimensional function for calculating the nozzle diameter equivalent to the electro-pneumatic(EP) or the electronically controlled pneumatic(ECP)brake valve as a function of the wagon length and the time to vent the brake pipe locally. The numerical results of the new model are compared against several experimental tests of high-speed passenger trains of Trenitalia, namely ETR500 and ETR1000. The model is suitable to be integrated into the UIC software TrainDy, aiming to extend its computational field to passenger trains and to simulate the safety of trains during a recovery.

Assessment of Asbestos Exposure Associated with a Brake Grinder

The wear patterns for drum-style automotive brakes tend to enlarge internal drum diameters. Such enlargement is most profound when used brake drums are machined to restore the metal friction surfaces. Specialized arc grinding machinery has been used to match replacement shoe-style brake friction materials to enlarged drums. The process of arc grinding removes friction material, thereby producing dust. When organic-style friction materials contained asbestos, use of arc grinding machinery posed an asbestos fiber exposure risk to operators and proximate personnel. The manufacturers of arc grinding machinery have incorporated local exhaust ventilation systems designed to capture and remove this dust at the point of grinding contact and propel this dust into collection bags or other systems. This research was designed to evaluate the dust capture and retention characteristics of a specific arc grinder product, when used to custom grind asbestos-containing brake friction materials. A Bear Model 1420 automotive brake shoe arc grinder was the subject of this study. During two separate but consecutive test sessions, newly relined sets of shoe-style automobile brake friction materials were precision ground. Both area and personal air samples were collected throughout each testing session. This work took place within a closed and unventilated metal building, with total interior volume of 2500 m3. Collected air samples were analyzed using phase contrast microscopy (PCM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The results of analysis using PCM for personal samples (n = 6) ranged from <0.044 to 0.055 fibers per cc (f/cc) (mean 0.05). Follow-up analysis of these personal samples using TEM indicated asbestos-adjusted PCM exposures ranging from <0.0074 to 0.055 f/cc (mean ≤ 0.041). Area air samples, taken at distances ranging from 1.5 to 9 meters from the arc grinder (n = 12), showed asbestos-adjusted PCM concentrations ranging from <0.0075 to 0.041 f/cc (mean ≤ 0.017). The process of custom arc grinding shoe-style, asbestos-containing brake friction materials can cause exposure to airborne asbestos fibers. However, when done using properly equipped arc grinding machines, such exposures are not expected to exceed the current occupational exposure limits for asbestos of 0.1 f/cc 8-hour time-weighted average (TWA) or 1.0 f/cc 30-minute average.

Analysis of a Cashew Shell and Fly Ash Rich Brake Liner Composite Material

Hybrid materials collected from organic and inorganic sources,which are traditionally used as brake lining materials,generally include fly ash,cashew shell powder,phenolic resins,aluminium wool,barites,lime powder,carbon powder and copper powder.The present research focuses on the specific effects produced by fly ash and aims to provide useful indications for the replacement of asbestos due to the health hazards caused by the related fibers.Furthermore,the financial implications related to the use of large-volume use of fly ash,lime stone and cashew shell powder,readily available in most countries in the world,are also discussed.It is shown that many manufacturing and automotive industries,which are currently experiencing difficulties in meeting the increasing demand for brake lining material,may take advantage from the proposed solution.

Blended Regenerative Anti-Lock Braking System and Electronic Wedge Brake Coordinate Control Ensuring Maximal Energy Recovery and Stability of All-Wheel-Motor-Drive Electric Vehicles

ABS is an active safety system which showed a valuable contribution to vehicle safety and stability since it was first introduced. Recently, EVs with in-wheel-motors have drawn increasing attention owing to their greatest advantages. Wheels torques are precisely and swiftly controlled thanks to electric motors and their advanced driving techniques. In this paper, a regenerative-ABS control RABS is proposed for all-in-wheel-motors-drive EVs. The RABS is realized as a pure electronic braking system called brake-by-wire. A coordination strategy is suggested to control RABS compromising three layers. First, wheels slip control takes place, and braking torque is calculated in the higher layer. In the coordinate interlayer, torque is allocated between actuators ensuring maximal energy recovery and vehicle stability. While in the lower layer, actuator control is performed. The RABS effectiveness is validated on a 3-DOF EVSimulink model through two straight-line braking manoeuvres with low and high initial speeds of 50 km/h and 150 km/h, respectively. Both regular and emergency braking manoeuvres are considered with ABS enabled and disabled for comparison. Simulation results showed the high performance of the proposed RABS control in terms of vehicle stability, brake response, stopping distance, and battery re-charging.

A trailer car dynamics model considering brake rigging of a high-speed train and its application

Brake systems are essential for the speed regulation or braking of a high-speed train.The vehicle dynamic performance under braking condition is complex and directly affects the reliability and running safety.To reveal the vehicle dynamic behaviour in braking process,a comprehensive trailer car dynamics model(TCDM)considering brake systems is established in this paper.The dynamic interactions between the brake system and the other connected components are achieved using the brake disc-pad frictions,brake suspension systems,and wheel-rail interactions.The force and motion transmission from the brake system to the wheel-rail interface is performed by the proposed TCDM excited by track irregularity.In addition,the validity of TCDM is verified by experimental test results.On this basis,the dynamic behaviour of the coupled system is simulated and discussed.The findings indicate that the braking force significantly affects vehicle dynamic behaviour including the wheel-rail forces,suspension forces,wheelset torsional vibration,etc.The dynamic interactions within the brake system are also significantly affected by the vehicle vibration due to track irregularity.Besides,the developed TCDM can be further employed to the dynamic assessment of such a coupled mechanical system under different braking conditions.

Typical faults and safety analysis of brake controller for AC locomotive

Purpose–The brake controller is a key component of the locomotive brake system.It is essential to study its safety.Design/methodology/approach–This paper summarizes and analyzes typical faults of the brake controller,and proposes four categories of faults:position sensor faults,microswitch faults,mechanical faults and communication faults.Suggestions and methods for improving the safety of the brake controller are also presented.Findings–In this paper,a self-judgment and self-learning dynamic calibration method is proposed,which integrates the linear error of the sensor and the manufacturing and assembly errors of the brake controller to solve the output drift.This paper also proposes a logic for diagnosing and handling microswitch faults.Suggestions are proposed for other faults of brake controller.Originality/value–The methods proposed in this paper can greatly improve the usability of the brake controller and reduce the failure rate.

高速列车铜基摩擦材料的氧化行为

高速列车铜基摩擦材料在制动过程中,由于摩擦热的产生和耗散,会发生循环氧化。研究铜基摩擦材料在300、400、500、600和700℃下等温氧化50h的氧化行为。结果表明:铜基摩擦材料的氧化行为呈现多阶段特征;Cu、Fe的氧化与氧的扩散共同控制着低温氧化过程,而石墨的氧化在500℃之后占主导作用;Cu的氧化首先形成Cu_(2)O纳米团簇,然后生成CuO纳米线,最后依次转变为细小的和粗大的等轴晶;氧化温度的升高会促进Fe_(2)O_(3)纳米片的生长和致密化;Cu氧化物由于体积膨胀较大,逐渐将Fe氧化物覆盖;石墨烧蚀后形成的连通孔为内氧化提供氧气扩散通道;材料表面氧化层的形成使得表面硬度提高。

电气化铁路分区所再生制动能量利用系统及其控制策略

电气化铁路发展迅速,其牵引能耗高、再生制动能量利用率低等问题日益突出。为有效提高电气化铁路再生制动能量利用效率,实现电气化铁路节能减排,该文研究一种分区所再生制动能量利用系统及其控制策略。首先,基于典型重载和高速铁路实测负荷数据分析,提出基于功率融通和储能的分区所再生制动能量利用系统,并分析其运行原理。为保证再生制动能量利用系统在电气化铁路复杂负荷工况下实现再生制动能量的高效利用,提出一种含能量管理层与变流器控制层的双层控制策略。其中,能量管理层接收来自相邻变电所的实时测量信息,基于变电所工况及系统模式管理,执行能量管理策略计算得到系统运行参考功率。变流器控制层跟踪能量管理层给出的参考功率协调控制变流器,实现电气化铁路的潮流管理。最后,通过仿真验证所提分区所再生制动能量利用系统及其控制策略的正确性与有效性。结果表明,所提出的分区所再生制动能量利用系统及控制策略能够有效实现电气化铁路再生制动能量的转移利用与储能利用,提高再生制动能量利用率,有助于电气化铁路节能高效运行。

面向线控制动车辆单轮制动失效的稳定性控制

基于线控制动系统四轮可独立控制的特点,提出一种协同线控转向与线控制动的制动力实时分配的控制方法。该方法根据三轮富余制动力能否补偿失效轮损失制动力,按制动强度分为轻度、中度和重度制动3种工况,针对重度制动工况下制动力补偿不足问题,基于积分滑模控制方法设计前轮主动转向器,综合考虑单轮制动失效时各轮垂直载荷的变化和前轮转角介入后轮胎力的耦合,采用序列二次规划算法(sequental quadratic programming,SQP),实时分配剩余三轮制动力。仿真结果表明:在不同制动强度及不同轮制动失效下所提控制方法相较于无控制,横向跑偏分别减少了89.98%、91.90%、96.96%、89.62%,制动强度至少达到正常制动时的97.5%。因此,该控制方法在保证横向稳定性的同时最大限度地满足驾驶员的制动期望,有效抑制因单轮制动失效导致的车辆跑偏甩尾等问题。

踏面与盘式两种制动模式温度分布特征的模拟分析

探究1∶1踏面制动与缩比盘式制动得到的温度场存在偏差的原因,有利于提高利用缩比制动模式评价制动摩擦副热负荷能力的精度。基于TM-I型缩比车辆制动试验台和1∶1制动试验台,采用ADINA有限元软件,在制动压力10、15、20 kN和初速度60、80、105 km/h条件下,模拟计算2种制动模式的温度场,并分析影响2种制动模式温度偏差的因素。结果表明:1∶1踏面制动模式和缩比盘式制动模式得到的温度存在明显差别,踏面制动的温度均高于缩比盘式制动的温度;2种制动模式的温度差别随压力的变化不明显,但随制动初速度增加而明显加大;踏面制动由于摩擦面积集中,散热程度不良,随初速度从60 km/h增加到105 km/h,制动温度增加幅度为56%~77%,盘式制动由于摩擦弧长沿盘半径方向的不均匀,散热面积大,制动温度随初速度增加幅度为32%~44%。

基于积分滑模的电子机械制动系统ABS控制

为解决传统制动系统逻辑门限控制存在逻辑复杂且难以充分利用路面附着的问题,以及ABS存在的非线性、不确定性问题,提出了一种基于路面识别的ABS控制策略应用在电子机械制动系统。首先,通过Simulink建立1/4车辆制动模型;其次,分析附着系数在不同路面存在的差异性以及附着系数和车轮角减速度的变化规律,设计了一种高效且准确的路面识别算法来估算当前路面的最佳滑移率;最后,设计了基于积分滑模控制的ABS控制策略跟踪最佳滑移率。仿真结果表明:路面识别算法识别响应快、识别准确度高;所设计的ABS控制策略能够稳定跟踪最佳滑移率,对不同路面工况具有较强的适应性。与基于逻辑门限控制的传统制动系统相比,在单路面条件下制动时间减少了11.89%,制动距离缩短了12.7%;在变路面条件下制动时间减少了17.8%,制动距离缩短了19.9%。

摩擦-消音片结构对盘式制动器尖叫噪声的影响研究

针对某汽车盘式制动器存在制动尖叫噪声问题,研究了不同倒角结构的摩擦片、不同阻尼层厚度的消音片,以及两者匹配对制动尖叫噪声的影响,并通过台架试验分别对研究得到的最佳匹配方案和原方案进行噪声测试。研究结果表明,5种不同倒角结构摩擦片中,对称结构的倒角优于不对称结构,不对称结构的倒角解决频率较为集中的单处噪声效果较好,其中,对称直倒角结构降噪效果最好,但易诱发新的噪声;消音片阻尼层厚度逐渐增大时尖叫噪声发生的倾向性呈现先减小后增大的趋势;摩擦片与消音片的合理匹配能有效改善尖叫噪声,对称倒角和不对称倒角结构的摩擦片分别匹配消音片时的降噪趋势相反,其中对称斜倒角结构的摩擦片与阻尼层厚度为0.28 mm的消音片匹配时降噪效果最好,噪声发生度比原方案降低了97.98%。

基于等效序阻抗差异特征的低频输电线路差动保护优化方案

低频输电线路故障时,两侧短路电流均由模块化多电平矩阵变换器提供,两侧短路电流相角均受控且幅值相当,导致差动保护灵敏度严重下降。分析了低频输电系统定电压控制侧和功率控制侧的等效正、负序阻抗特征,指出因控制策略不同,系统故障时两侧等效正、负序阻抗特征存在明显差异。分析了低频输电线路区内和区外故障两侧保护装置测量到的等效序阻抗之间的差异性和相似性,基于此特征构建了两侧等效序阻抗差异指标,提出了基于等效序阻抗差异指标的差动保护制动系数优化方法。仿真结果表明,所提方案能够显著提升低频输电线路区内故障时差动保护的动作速度和动作灵敏性。

列车制动盘散热特性分析及拓扑优化

针对紧急制动工况下制动盘散热问题,采用计算流体力学分析方法对某型通风式制动盘进行了散热特性研究。对制动盘内部流道速度场和对流换热等进行评估,在此基础上,采用由N-S方程与达西定律耦合成的Brinkman方程拓扑优化,实现制动盘散热能力提升的优化目标。结果表明:优化后的模型在整个制动工况中散热量提高了13.46%。