An evaluation of prevention initiatives by 53 national anti-doping organizations: Achievements and limitations

Background: One main purpose of the World Anti-Doping Agency was to harmonize anti-doping efforts, including the provision of anti-doping education. A multifaceted approach to doping prevention can play a key role in preventing intentional and unintentional doping. This article aimed to systematically record and evaluate doping prevention approaches in the form of information and education activities of national antidoping organizations(NADOs) and assess the extent to which a multifaceted doping prevention approach has been realized.Methods: Data on anti-doping information and education activities of 53 NADOs were collected via a survey and an online search of the NADOs' websites. Prevention activities were classified into knowledge focused, affective focused, social skills, life skills, and ethic-and valuebased.The implementation of the prevention activities was assessed by 4 independent raters using a modified visual analogue scale.Results: In total, 59% of the NADOs(n = 38) returned the survey and 70%(n = 45) had information available online. The data were combined for the visual analogue scale assessment. Overall, 58% of the NADOs(n = 37) reported offering activities including elements of all 5 approaches.Results of the raters' assessments indicated that the knowledge-focused approach was best implemented;the implementation of the other 4 approaches was largely unsatisfactory. The most common barriers to implementing doping prevention programs reported by the NADOs were lack of resources(n = 26) and difficulties in collaborating with sports organizations(n = 8).Conclusion: Results show a discrepancy between NADOs' self-report data and the implementation assessment. Even though the NADOs indicated otherwise, most of their education-based approaches did not address aspects of the visual analogue scale(e.g., resisting peer pressure) and only a few programs were ongoing. Possible explanations might be found in the reported barriers(e.g., financial). Concrete guidelines defining multifaceted, values-based education, and best practice examples should be developed to indicate how to include all 5 approaches in prevention.

Substance Identification in Anti-Doping Control by Means of Mass Spectrometry. Data Reduction and Decision Criteria

A real doping case for which the national-level reviewing body deemed it probable that a misidentification of the national-level athlete’s sample occurred at the WADA accredited laboratory, thus making the athlete in this case strictly anonymous, is used to discuss criteria for data reduction and tolerance windows in GC-MS and LC-MS/MS. Stricter criteria for data reduction would remedy the present ambiguities.

Human Rights Protection in Anti-doping Governance

It has become a worldwide consensus to oppose doping in sports.Since its establishment in 1999,the World Anti-Doping Agency has made unremitting efforts over the past 20-plus years and established an anti-doping governance system with global influence and high efficiency.But whether this governance system seeks to realize human rights while maintaining order value is a proposition that attracts more attention.An in-depth examination of the anti-doping system shows that the pursuit and protection of human rights values are also an essential basis for the legitimacy of its system.At the operational level,all aspects of anti-doping governance,including inspections,testing,investigations,and exemptions for therapeutic use,are related to human rights protection.The current rule system based on the World Anti-Doping Code also covers these issues.China’s anti-doping cause has made comprehensive progress in recent years in that it meets the general requirements of the world’s anti-doping governance and has made institutional innovations in many aspects,contributing Chinese wisdom and experience to the protection of human rights in this regard.

Foodborne doping and supervision in sports

Cases of foodborne doping are frequently reported in sports events and can cause severe consequences for athletes.The foodborne doping can be divided into natural endogenous and artifi cially added foods according to the sources,including anabolic agents,stimulants,diuretics,β-blockers,β2 agonists and others.In order to control foodborne doping,chromatographic technique,immunoassay,nuclear magnetic resonance,biosensor technology,pyrolytic spectroscopy,comprehensive analysis and electrochemical analysis have usually used as analytical and inspection strategies.Meanwhile,the legislation of anti-doping,the improvement of testing standard and technology,and the prevention and control of food safety,as well as the improvement of risk perception of athletes are highly necessary for achieving the effective risk control and supervision of foodborne doping,which will be benefi cial for athletes,doctors and administrators to avoid the risks of foodborne doping test and reduce foodborne doping risks for the health of athletes.

Hormone abuse in sports： the antidoping perspective

Since ancient times, unethical athletes have attempted to gain an unfair competitive advantage through the use of doping substances. A list of doping substances and methods banned in sports is published yearly by the World AntiDoping Agency （WADA）. A substance or method might be included in the List if it fulfills at least two of the following criteria： enhances sports performance; represents a risk to the athlete＇s health; or violates the spirit of sports. This list, constantly updated to reflect new developments in the pharmaceutical industry as well as doping trends, enumerates the drug types and methods prohibited in and out of competition. Among the substances included are steroidal and peptide hormones and their modulators, stimulants, glucocorticosteroids, β2-agonists, diuretics and masking agents, narcotics, and cannabinoids. Blood doping, tampering, infusions, and gene doping are examples of prohibited methods indicated on the List. From all these, hormones constitute by far the highest number of adverse analytical findings reported by antidoping laboratories. Although to date most are due to anabolic steroids, the advent of molecular biology techniques has made recombinant peptide hormones readily available. These substances are gradually changing the landscape of doping trends. Peptide hormones like erythropoietin （EPO）, human growth hormone （hGH）, insulin, and insulin-like growth factor Ⅰ （IGF-Ⅰ） are presumed to be widely abused for performance enhancement. Furthermore, as there is a paucity of techniques suitable for their detection, peptide hormones are all the more attractive to dishonest athletes. This article will overview the use of hormones as doping substances in sports, focusing mainly on peptide hormones as they represent a pressing challenge to the current fight against doping. Hormones and hormones modulators being developed by the pharmaceutical industry, which could emerge as new doping substances, are also discussed.

Analysis of doping control test results in individual and team sports from 2003 to 2015

Background:Determining the prevalence of doping in sport might be useful for anti-doping authorities to gauge the effectiveness of anti-doping policies implemented to prevent positive attitudes toward doping.Using questionnaires and personal interviews,previous investigations have found that the prevalence of doping might be different among different sports disciplines;however,there is no sport-specific information about the proportion of adverse and atypical findings(AAF) in samples used for doping control.The aim of the present investigation was to assess the differences in the frequency of adverse analytical and atypical findings among sports using the data made available by the World Anti-Doping Agency.Methods:The data included in this investigation were gathered from the Testing Figures Reports made available annually from 2003 to 2015 by the World Anti-Doping Agency.These Testing Figures Reports include information about the number of samples analyzed,the number of AAFs reported,and the most commonly found drugs in the urine and blood samples analyzed.A total of 1,347,213 samples were analyzed from the individual sports selected for this investigation,and 698,371 samples were analyzed for disciplines catalogued as team sports.Results:In individual sports,the highest proportions of AAF were 3.3%±1.0% in cycling,3.0%±0.6% in weightlifting,and 2.9%±0.6% in boxing.In team sports,the highest proportions of AAF were 2.2%±0.5% in ice hockey,2.0%±0.5% in rugby,and 2.0%±0.5% in basketball.Gymnastics and skating had the lowest proportions at(≤1.0%) for individual sports,and field hockey,volleyball and football had the lowest proportions for team sports(≤1.4%).Conclusion:As suggested by the analysis,the incidence of AAF was not uniform across all sports disciplines,with the different proportions pointing to an uneven use of banned substances depending on the sport.This information might be useful for increasing the strength and efficacy of anti-doping policies in those sports with the highest prevalence in the use of banned substances.

反兴奋剂的

与竞赛规则一样，反兴奋剂规则是规范体育比赛条件的运动规则。

Critical Assessment of the Current WADA Approach for the Detection of 4-Chlorodehydromethyltestosteron

This paper is focused on application of method for detection of novel metabolites of 4-chlorodehydromethyltestosterone (known as oral turinabol, OT), which were postulated as long-term metabolites. The method started to be applied without rigorous validation, verification and excretion assay assisted as evidences for existence of the declared detectable compounds as true metabolites derived after OT biotransformation. This method has been started to use almost in its original form which arose in 2012 year for the very first time and never been revised and re-confirmed in peer-reviewed journals. Usually WADA encourages accredited laboratories to publish their results of methods development, validation and specific excretion studies in peer-reviewed journals. However, an incorrect method with neglected validation design and implicit data contradictions is currently widely applied. The author of this presented paper was athletes’ representative on repeated occasion and has been provided with several full documentation packages of OT novel metabolites analysis. Thus, the author makes its own conclusion based on its own evidences of that currently employed method and data analysis is exactly the same declared in a wrong way as emerged from the original paper.