Modifications in aroma characteristics of'Merlot'dry red wines aged in American,French and Slovakian oak barrels with different toasting degrees

Aging in oak barrels is widely used in enology which could bring flavor changes and aromatic complexity to wines.In the present study,the aroma compounds were analyzed from the‘Merlot’dry red wines,which were fermented in two types of fermenters(stainless steel tank and rotated oak barrel)and aged in six types of oak barrels(three geographic origins×two toasting degrees)for different time(0,3,6 and 9 months,respectively).Results showed that 30 volatiles were associated with barrels and increased during oak aging.The fermenters could influence the intensities of the toast,leathery,smoky,fruity,floral and caramel aromas.The concentration of whisky lactone,eugenol,cis-isoeugenol,and the intensities of the toast and spicy aromas were highest in the wines aged in American oak and were lowest in the wines aged in French oak barrels.The concentrations of guaiacol,syringol,trans-isoeugenol,furfural alcohol,vanilla,cis-whisky lactone enabled the medium toasting barrels to be distinguished from the light toasting ones.The compounds originating from the barrels could be used to distinguish the types of different barrels,but the other general grape-derived and fermentation-derived volatiles could not.The fermenters,oak species and toasting degrees of the barrels all had significant effects on the aroma profiles of the aged‘Merlot’dry red wines,but the influence of the geographic origin was not obvious.

Plant-Derived Enzymes Producing Chiral Aroma Compounds and Potential Application

Aroma(volatile)compounds play important ecological functions in plants,and also contribute to the quality of plant-derived foods.Moreover,chiral aroma compounds affect their functions in plants and lead to different flavor quality properties.Formations of chiral aroma compounds are due to the presence of enzymes producing these compounds in plants,which are generally involved in the final biosynthetic step of the aroma compounds.Here,we review recent progress in research on the plant-derived enzymes producing chiral aroma compounds,and their changes in response to environmental factors.The chiral aroma enzymes that have been reported produce(R)-linalool,(S)-linalool,(R)-limonene,and(S)-limonene,etc.,and these enzymes are found in various plant species.We also discuss the origins of enantioselectivity in the plant-derived enzymes producing chiral aroma compounds and summarize the potential use of plants containing enzymes producing chiral aroma compounds for producing chiral flavors/fragrances.

Effect of cooking processes on tilapia aroma and potential umami perception

Tilapia is a freshwater fish group with a sustainable prospect but suffers off-notes appearing during cooking processes.To promote pleasant odorants by thermal cooking processes,tilapia fillets were cooked in different ways(roasting,microwave-heating,boiling and steaming).Their aroma profiles were analysed with special focus on off-notes and umami-enhancing odorants by principal component analysis,and correlated with the heating time,colour,moisture and water activity by partial least squares regression analysis.Results showed that the“green”and“earthy”off-notes were highly correlated with the boiling process(excess of water,short heating time),while most of the umami-enhancing odorants had a high association with the roasting process(low water content,long heating time,better Maillard reaction).This study indicated that roasting is the most adapted cooking process promoting Maillard-derived aromas,umami-enhancing aromas and meanwhile,reducing off-notes.This research helps in understanding the off-note generation in tilapia and promoting desirable umami-enhancing odorants.

Complexation with pre-formed“empty”V-type starch for encapsulation of aroma compounds

Aroma compounds are low-molecular-weight organic volatile molecules and are broadly utilized in the food industry.However,due to their high volatility and evaporative losses during processing and storage,the stabilization of these volatile ingredients using encapsulation is a commonly investigated practice.Complexation of aroma compounds using starch inclusion complex could be a potential approach due to the hydrophobicity of the left-handed single helical structure.In the present study,we used starch of three different V-type structures,namely V,V,and V,to encapsulate six different aroma compounds,including1-decanol(DN),cis-3-hexen-1-ol(HN),4-allylanisole(AN),γ-decalactone(DA),trans-cinnamaldehyde(CA),and citral(CT).The formed inclusion complexes samples were characterized using complementary techniques,including X-ray diffraction(XRD)and differential scanning calorimetry(DSC).The results showed that upon complexation with aroma compounds,all V-subtypes retained their original crystalline structures.However,different trends of crystallinity were observed for each type of the prepared inclusion complexes.Additionally,among three V-type starches,V-type starch formed inclusion complexes with aroma compounds most efficiently and promoted the formation of FormⅡcomplex.This study suggested that the structure of aroma compounds and the type of V starch could both affect the complexation properties.

Effects of Bagging on Aroma of ‘Qi xia daxiangshui' Pear Fruit

In order to investigate the effect of bagging on aroma components of ＇Qi xia daxiangshui＇ pear fruit, an experiment was performed, and the ingredients and contents of aroma volatile compounds of bagged and non-bagged fruit of ＇Qi xia daxiangshui＇ pear were studied by using heads space solid-phase microextraction （HS-SPME） and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry （GC-MS）. The results showed that： there were significant differences in the aroma varieties and contents of bagging and non-bagged fruit. In bagging treatment, 34 different varieties of volatiles were detected in ＇Qi xia daxiangshui＇ pear fruit; the total contents of aro- ma volatiles were 2 671.53 ng/g, while 42 ingredients of volatiles were detected in the non-bagged fruit; the total contents of aroma volatiles were 10 040.14 rig/g. Bagging significantly reduced the varieties and the contents of aroma volatiles in ＇Qi xia daxiangshui＇ pear fruit.

水溶肥不同施用量对桃生长发育及果实品质的影响

采用3年生桃品种仙岛11号为试材,通过设0(清水对照)、200、350、500、650、800 g/株6个施肥量梯度,观察测定不同施肥量桃树生长发育情况、果实品质变化、香气、经济效益情况,旨在选出最优施肥量,为生产上提供使用依据、减少资源浪费及土壤污染并节约成本。结果表明:施肥量350 g/株处理桃树叶片气孔导度、叶面积与对照相比得到显著提升,分别增加了21.74%、79.76%;单果重、横径、纵径与对照相比分别显著增加了23.42%、7.43%、1.99%;可溶性固形物含量达18.39%,经济效益也得到了明显提高。通过隶属函数法排名得出350 g/株是最优施肥量。

Influence of nitrogen status on fermentation performances of non-Saccharomyces yeasts:a review

Nitrogen,one of the most crucial nutrients present in grapes and musts,plays a key role in yeast activities during alcoholic fermentation.Such influences are imposed on yeast growth and fermentation performances including the formation of secondary metabolites.Saccharomyces cerevisiae,the main yeast responsible for fermentation,has been studied extensively regarding nitrogen impacts.On the other hand,a similar study for non-Saccharomyces yeasts,whose contributions to winemaking have gradually been acknowledged,remains to be fully explored,with a few studies being reported.This review starts by discussing nitrogen impacts on non-Saccharomyces yeast growth and fermentation kinetics in different case scenarios,then proceeds to summarize the nitrogen preferences of individual yeast strains with regulation mechanisms elucidated by recent studies.Detailed discussions on the influences on the production of volatile compounds and proposed pathways therein are made,followed by future work suggested as the final section.In summarizing the nitrogen impacts on non-Saccharomyces yeasts throughout alcoholic fermentation,this review will be helpful in obtaining a more comprehensive view on these non-conventional wine yeasts in terms of nutrient requirements and corresponding volatile production.Research gaps will therefore be elucidated for future research.

Analysis of flavor and widely metabolomics differences in black sesame before and after processing

The objective of this study was to determine the differences of aroma and taste in three black sesame originsbefore and after processing via flavor and widely metabolomics.By analyzing the sensory characteristics and metabolites of raw and treated black sesame from China,Vietnam,and Myanmar,treated Chinese sesame have the most significant change in hardness after thermal processing,low viscosity and was easy to chew.The electronic nose could distinguish between raw and treated sesame due to the aroma distribution.The reason of treated sesame from China was“fragrant”is due to the highest content(2545.50μg/kg)of total pyrazines including 2,5-dimethylpyrazine,2-ethyl-5-methylpyrazine,2,3,5-trimethylpyrazine,3-ethyl-2,5-dimethylpyrazine.933 metabolites were detected via a wide targeted metabolomics in the taste of raw and treated sesame.Based on the analysis of metabolites related to bitterness,145 substances were selected.The main bitter contributors may be amino acids,dipeptides and organic acids.

Excavation and Screening Utilization of Strong Aroma Tobacco Variety in Chizhou Tobaccogrowing Area

[Objective] This study was aimed to screen out the strong-aroma tobacco variety with good ecological adaptability as the best cultivar in Chizhou. [Method] Based on the ecological conditions that formed the strong aroma style of tobacco leaves in the tobacco-growing area, 6 varieties（K326, NC55, NC71, 0508, Yunyan99, Yan240） were selected and compared through combining the demand characteristics of industrial enterprise to the quality. [Results] The output value of 0508 was the highest and NC71 had a medium output value but with coordinated chemical composition. The system evaluation of this study on the quality and characteristic style further clarified the feature strength and utility value of various tobacco varieties with strong aroma. [Conclusion] NC71 is the best cultivar in Chizhou tobacco-growing area, and it is suggested using NC71 as the demonstrative variety of the next year. The study on the excavation and screening utilization of tobacco varieties with local features is of great significance to the tobacco production industry.

Profiles of the Headspace Volatile Organic and Essential Oil Compounds from the Tunisian Cardaria draba (L.) Desv. and Its Leaf and Stem Epidermal Micromorphology

In this work, we investigated aroma volatiles emanated by dry roots, stems, leaves, flowers, and fruits of Cardariadraba (L.) Desv. growing wild in Tunisia and its aerial part essential oils (EOs) composition. A total of 37 volatileorganic compounds (96.7%–98.9%) were identified;4 esters, 4 alcohols, 7 hydrocarbons, 12 aldehydes, 5 ketones,1 lactone, 1 organosulfur compound, 2 organonitrogen compounds, and 1 acid. The hydrocarbons form the maingroup, representing 49.5%–84.6% of the total detected volatiles. The main constituent was 2,2,4,6,6-pentamethylheptane(44.5%–76.2%) reaching the highest relative percentages. Forty-two compounds were determined in thetwo fractions of EOs, representing 98.8% and 97.2% of the total oil composition, respectively. The principal componentswere hexadecanoic acid (34.6%), 6-methyl-5-hepten-2-one (18.3%), decanal (15.0%), 6,10,14-trimethyl-2-pentadecanone (13.2%), and n-pentacosane (13%). Micromorphological details of the leaf and stem epidermisusing light microscopy revealed polygonal cells with sinuous walls in the adaxial and abaxial leaf surfaces andnearly rectangular and long ones with linear and thick walls for the stem epidermis. The stomata complexes wereanisocytic in the leaf epidermis and mainly anisocytic and rarely paracytic in the stem epidermis. Non-glandulartrichomes were unbranched and long with an acute apex or short with a convex apex. The glandular ones wereidentified for the first time in this species. They were short-stalked with a large secretory head. The highest stomatalindex (17.02%) was recorded in the abaxial leaf surface. The identification of headspace volatiles and essentialoil compounds can be used to characterize this species, and the various epidermis micromorphologicalfeatures are very useful for biosystematics taxonomic studies within Brassicaceae.

Effects of Applying Bio-bacterial Fertilizer on Aroma Components of Flue-cured Tobacco

Objective] This research aimed to investigate the effects of bio-bacterial fertilizer on quality of flue-curved tobacco. [Method] The various concentrations of bio-bacterial fertilizer were applied to flue-cured tobacco as leaf fertilizer and base fertilizer respectively. [Result] The effect of bio-bacterial fertilizer on flue-cured tobac-co differed among different treatments. Compared with the control, the bio-bacterial fertilizer significantly affected the quality of flue-cured tobacco. Among al the treat-ments, Treatment 3（leaf fertilizer） showed the best treatment effect, and it significant-ly improved the quality of flue-cured tobacco. [Conclusion] The bio-bacterial fertilizer showed significant improving effect on quality of flue-cured tobacco if spayed as leaf fertilizer.

Effects of Different Yellowing Conditions on Neutral Aroma Components and Smoking Quality of Flue-cured Upper Leaves

A heated air circulation standard curing barn was used for baking tobacco leaves, and the effects of different yellowing conditions during the baking process on contents of neutral aroma components and smoking quality of upper leaves were studied by setting different yellowing time and color-fixing time. The results showed that during the baking process, only by prolonging the yellowing time by 24 h on the basis of control, the content of every kind of neutral aroma components in- creased obviously and the content of solanone increased by nearly 2.20 times. It was unfavorable for the degradation and accumulation of aroma components when only prolonging color-fixing time by 24 h. Prolonging both yellowing time and color- fixing time by 24 h mainly promoted the accumulation of chlorophyll degradation product neophytadiene, which increased by 33.24%, while the degradation and ac- cumulation of some aroma components were inhibited, indicating that only prolonging the yellowing time by 24 h could promote the accumulation of various kinds of neu- tral aroma components and improve the quality of tobacco leaves. The regression models were established of neutral aroma components in the first and second prin- cipal components to total aroma content, which were y=x＋0.053 47 （R^2=0.919 7） and y=x＋0.147 5 （R^2=0.698 4）, respectively, and they were verified to be feasible.

Inheritance of Aroma of Good-quality Indica Type Rice PTGMS Line GHS and Its Application in Hybrid Rice Breeding

The inheritance of aroma of GHS was studied by crossing GHS with non-aromatic lines 9311, Xianhui 207, Yuefengzhan, Taihuangzhan, Yuexiangzhan and aromatic lines Yuxiangyouzhan, Xiangwanxian 17, Tianlongxiang 103, Xinwanxiang and Chuangxiang 5. For the grains of F1 generation, the performance of aroma was tested by chewing method, while for the plants of generations of F1, F2 and BC1 F1, the performance of aroma was tested by KOH solution method. The results showed that the non-aroma of restorer line is a dominant trait, but the aroma of GHS line is a recessive trait; the aroma genes of GHS, Yuexiangzhan and Xiangwanxian 17 were non-al elic; the aroma genes of GHS, Yuxiangyouzhan, Tianlongxiang 103, Xin-wanxiang and Chuangxiang 5 may have the same al elic loci. Among the combinations of GHS and non-aromatic restorer lines, the non-aromatic to aromatic ratios of the F2 plants and the BC1 F1 plants were 3∶1 and 1∶1, respectively, and the inheritance of aroma of GHS was control ed by a pair of recessive nuclear genes. In hybrid rice breeding, using GHS, Qiongxiang S has been bred out, and a series of aro-matic hybrid rice combinations have also been selected. Among the hybrid combi-nations, Qiongxiangliangyou 1, Qiongxiangliangyou 2 and other high-yielding and high-quality combinations have been approved by provincial government, and they have good application prospects.

Forcing in Christian Events: The Turin Shroud Case

In its totality and complexity, the theme of forcing in Christian events is almost impossible to investigate. In fact, a lot of scholars and a very long time would be necessary to analyse the numerous events. Thus, we decided to investigate such events only in the study of the Shroud of Turin, an archaeological find known worldwide. The above topic is essential for Christianity. Furthermore, we must take into account that also among the followers of other religions, atheists and agnostics, there is a considerable interest. We think this is due to the unexpected characteristics that the Body Image, which appears on the Burial Linen of the Nazarene, shows. In this article, we would like to demonstrate that the practice of forcing is still in use. These actions, which are also present on the other side, in the non-Christian world, are the result of conflicts of religious interests. To confirm the presence of the Almighty is not necessarily the forcing. Finding a solution to these problems is not our job. However, we want to highlight them through scientific literature.

Classification and Distribution of Common Aroma Components in Tobacco Leaf Based on Their Physical and Chemical Properties

[Objective] This study was aimed to find a new method for the classification of common aroma components in tobacco leaves. [Method] Sixty-four common aroma components in tobacco leaves were classified by cluster analysis based on their relative molecular weight. The contents and distribution of aroma components in another 71 C3F and 64 B2F tobacco leaf samples were analyzed by using the new method. [Result] The 64 common aroma components were divided into three categories trough the cluster analysis based on their molecular weight. CategoryⅠ consisted of 12 aroma components which had high molecular weight（281.308±21.536on average） and high boiling point（371.311±29.904 ℃ on average）. Category Ⅱ included 27 components which had low molecular weight（103.722 ± 13.115 on average） and low boiling point（176.132±42.342 ℃ on average）. Category Ⅲ included 25components which had middle molecular weight（175.393 ± 24.906 on average） and middle boiling point（250.562±45.431 ℃ on average）. The content of high-molecularweight aroma components in middle leaves（547.344±224.391 μg/g） was much higher than that in upper leaves（477.549±182.066 μg/g）. The content of low-molecularweight aroma component in middle leaves（17.468±3.459 μg/g） was also significantly higher than that in upper leaves（15.936±3.456 μg/g）. The content of middle-molecular-weight aroma component in middle leaves（44.931 ±8.953 μg/g） was extremely significantly higher than that in upper leaves（37.997±6.042 μg/g）. [Conclusion] This study proposed a new way to classify the aroma components in flue-cured tobacco leaves using the relative molecular weight as the index, which will provide theoretical reference for developing special tobacco leaves.

Effects of Different Flue-curing Barns on Aroma Quality of Upper Flue-cured Tobacco Leaves of K326

[Objective] This study was conducted to compare the aroma quality of up-per leaves of K326 flue-cured in different barns, and provide theoretical references for the development and optimization of bulk curing barn and the supporting tech-niques. [Method] The upper leaves of K326 were flue-cured in a commonness barn, a four-shelf bulk curing barn and a three-shelf bulk curing barn separately, and then the contents of aroma components and taste quality indices of the finished leaves were measured and compared. [Result] The contents of total aroma components, chromoplast pigment degradation products, phenylalanine aroma components and neophytadiene showed no significant differences in the leaves flue-cured in four-shelf bulk curing barn and commonness barn, but were significantly or very significantly higher than those in the leaves flue-cured in three-shelf bulk curing barn. The con-tents of carotenoid degradation products, Mail ard reaction products, cembranes aro-ma components and total aroma components （except neophytadiene） showed no significant difference among the three treatments. The results of sensory evaluation revealed that the sensory taste of the leaves flue-cured in four-shelf bulk curing barn was the best, as the finished leaves had rich, delicate aroma, comfortable and clean aftertaste. The leaves flue-cured in commonness barn was better than those flue-cured in three-shelf bulk curing barn in aroma quality, amount and aftertaste. [Conclusion] The four-shelf bulk curing barn had a large volume for tobacco leaf processing, but a similar baking environment to the commonness barn, which is conducive to the formation and accumulation of aroma components, so the finished leaves had similar appearance and quality with those flue-cured in commonness barn. The upper flue-cured leaves in three-shelf bulk curing bran had poorer quality than those flue-cured in the other two barns.

Tea aroma formation

Besides water,tea is one of the most popular beverages around the world.The chemical ingredients and biological activities of tea have been summarized recently.The current review summarizes tea aroma compounds and their formation in green,black,and oolong tea.The flavor of tea can be divided into two categories:taste(non-volatile compounds)and aroma(volatile compounds).All of these aroma molecules are generated from carotenoids,lipids,glycosides,etc.precursors,and also from Maillard reaction.In the current review,we focus on the formation mechanism of main aromas during the tea manufacturing process.©2015 Beijing Academy of Food Sciences.Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V.All rights reserved.

Effects of different color paper bags on aroma development of Kyoho grape berries

This study investigated the influence of red,green,blue,and white paper bags on the free volatile compound development of Kyoho grape berries from green to harvest.Seven functional groups of volatiles were identified during the development of Kyoho grape berries including esters,aldehydes,alcohols,terpenes,ketones,acids,and hydrocarbons.Esters and aldehydes were abundant in Kyoho grape berries,mainly represented by ethyl acetate,ethyl butyrate,and(E)-2-hexenal.They accumulated quickly after veraison and slightly decreased toward maturation.Red,green,blue,and white paper bags promoted the accumulation of esters and inhibited the accumulation of aldehydes,also inhibited the accumulation of alcohols,tepenes,ketones,and acids.Their effect from strong to weak was green,blue,red,and white paper bags.The expression profiles of genes in the lipoxygenase-hydroperoxide lyase(LOX-HPL) pathway were also analyzed and the results indicated that the regulation of red,green,blue,and white paper bags on aldehydes,alcohols,and esters volatile aromas was at transcriptional level.The results expanded our comprehension in grape aroma biosynthesis and berry bagging technique in table grape cultivation.

Judgment of Aroma Types of Middle and Upper Flue-cured Tobacco Leaves Based on Stepwise Discriminant Analysis

[Objective] The aim of this study was to establish mathematical models for judging the aroma types of middle and upper flue-cured tobacco leaves according to the contents and proportions of aroma compositions. [Method] The aroma types of tobacco leaves were judged based on stepwise discriminant analysis, using 63 C3F and 65 B2F tobacco leaf samples from 13 tobacco producing regions in 11 provinces of China （Huili in Sichuan, Baokang in Hubei, Wulong in Chongqing, Lu- oyang in Henan, Zhucheng in Shandong, Wuyi Mountain in Fujian, Malong in Yun- nan, Chuxiong in Yunnan, Bijie in Guizhou, Liuyang in Hunan, Suiyang in Guizhou, Kaiyuan in Liaoning, Nanxiong in Guangdong） as calibration samples, and 67 aroma components as indices. And the Fisher discriminant functions were verified using 21 C3F and 19 B2F tobacco leaf samples. [Result] Variation coefficients of the propor- tions were lower than that of contents of most aroma components in middle and upper leaves of the samples, indicating that the proportions were more stable than contents of aroma components. The proportions of benzyl alcohol, solanone, β-dam- ascone, neophytadiene, farnesylacetone A, palmitic acid, thunbergol, methyl linole- nate and cembratriene-diol were all over 1% in both middle and upper leaves, al- though the dominant aroma components of the same aroma type varied between middle and upper leaves. Moreover, 11, 18, 7 and 11 aroma components were re- spectively introduced into the Fisher discriminant functions established based on the contents and proportions of middle and upper flue-cured tobacco leaves, which ex- hibited accuracy rates of 91.7%, 100%, 91.7% and 91.7% in the judgments of other tobacco leaf samples. The results revealed that the components those determined aroma types in middle leaves were obviously more than in upper leaves. In middle leaves, the accuracy rates of aroma type judgment could be improved by using the proportions rather than the contents of aroma components as indices. However, the functions based on the proportions and the contents of aroma components in upper leaves gave close accuracy rates. [Conclusion] The results of the study will provide references for identifying aroma types of flue-cured tobacco leaves in future work.

The chromosome-level quality genome provides insights into the evolution of the biosynthesis genes for aroma compounds of Osmanthus fragrans

Sweet osmanthus(Osmanthus fragrans)is a very popular ornamental tree species throughout Southeast Asia and USA particularly for its extremely fragrant aroma.We constructed a chromosome-level reference genome of O.fragrans to assist in studies of the evolution,genetic diversity,and molecular mechanism of aroma development.A total of over 118 Gb of polished reads was produced from HiSeq(45.1 Gb)and PacBio Sequel(73.35 Gb),giving 100×depth coverage for long reads.The combination of Illumina-short reads,PacBio-long reads,and Hi-C data produced the final chromosome quality genome of O.fragrans with a genome size of 727 Mb and a heterozygosity of 1.45%.The genome was annotated using de novo and homology comparison and further refined with transcriptome data.The genome of O.fragrans was predicted to have 45,542 genes,of which 95.68%were functionally annotated.Genome annotation found 49.35%as the repetitive sequences,with long terminal repeats(LTR)being the richest(28.94%).Genome evolution analysis indicated the evidence of whole-genome duplication 15 million years ago,which contributed to the current content of 45,242 genes.Metabolic analysis revealed that linalool,a monoterpene is the main aroma compound.Based on the genome and transcriptome,we further demonstrated the direct connection between terpene synthases(TPSs)and the rich aromatic molecules in O.fragrans.We identified three new flower-specific TPS genes,of which the expression coincided with the production of linalool.Our results suggest that the high number of TPS genes and the flower tissue-and stage-specific TPS genes expressions might drive the strong unique aroma production of O.fragrans.