Artificial ground freezing of underground mines in cold regions using thermosyphons with air insulation

Current practice of underground artificial ground freezing(AGF)typically involves huge refrigeration systems of large economic and environmental costs.In this study,a novel AGF technique is proposed deploying available cold wind in cold regions.This is achieved by a static heat transfer device called thermosyphon equipped with an air insulation layer.A refrigeration unit can be optionally integrated to meet additional cooling requirements.The introduction of air insulation isolates the thermosyphon from ground zones where freezing is not needed,resulting in:(1)steering the cooling resources(cold wind or refrigeration)towards zones of interest;and(2)minimizing refrigeration load.This design is demonstrated using well-validated mathematical models from our previous work based on two-phase enthalpy method of the ground coupled with a thermal resistance network for the thermosyphon.Two Canadian mines are considered:the Cigar Lake Mine and the Giant Mine.The results show that our proposed design can speed the freezing time by 30%at the Giant Mine and by two months at the Cigar Lake Mine.Further,a cooling load of 2.4 GWh can be saved at the Cigar Lake Mine.Overall,this study provides mining practitioners with sustainable solutions of underground AGF.

Thermal performance of cast-in-place piles with artificial ground freezing in permafrost regions

During the construction of cast-in-place piles in warm permafrost,the heat carried by concrete and the cement hydration reaction can cause strong thermal disturbance to the surrounding permafrost.Since the bearing capacity of the pile is quite small before the full freeze-back,the quick refreezing of the native soils surrounding the cast-in-place pile has become the focus of the infrastructure construction in permafrost.To solve this problem,this paper innovatively puts forward the application of the artificial ground freezing(AGF)method at the end of the curing period of cast-in-place piles in permafrost.A field test on the AGF was conducted at the Beiluhe Observation and Research Station of Frozen Soil Engineering and Environment(34°51.2'N,92°56.4'E)in the Qinghai Tibet Plateau(QTP),and then a 3-D numerical model was established to investigate the thermal performance of piles using AGF under different engineering conditions.Additionally,the long-term thermal performance of piles after the completion of AGF under different conditions was estimated.Field experiment results demonstrate that AGF is an effective method to reduce the refreezing time of the soil surrounding the piles constructed in permafrost terrain,with the ability to reduce the pile-soil interface temperatures to below the natural ground temperature within 3 days.Numerical results further prove that AGF still has a good cooling effect even under unfavorable engineering conditions such as high pouring temperature,large pile diameter,and large pile length.Consequently,the application of this method is meaningful to save the subsequent latency time and solve the problem of thermal disturbance in pile construction in permafrost.The research results are highly relevant for the spread of AGF technology and the rapid building of pile foundations in permafrost.

Numerical simulation of artificial ground freezing in a fluid-saturated rock mass with account for filtration and mechanical processes

This study is devoted to the numerical simulation of the artificial ground freezing process in a fluid-saturated rock mass of the potassium salt deposit. A coupled model of nonstationary thermal conductivity, filtration and thermo-poroelasticity,which takes into account dependence of the physical properties on temperature and pressure, is proposed on the basis of the accepted hypotheses. The considered area is a cylinder with a depth of 256 meters and diameter of 26.5 meters and includes 13 layers with different thermophysical and filtration properties. Numerical simulation was carried out by the finite-element method. It has been shown that substantial ice wall formation occurs non-uniformly along the layers. This can be connected with geometry of the freezing wells and with difference in physical properties. The average width of the ice wall in each layer was calculated. It was demonstrated that two toroidal convective cells induced by thermogravitational convection were created from the very beginning of the freezing process. The effect of the constant seepage flow on the ice wall formation was investigated. It was shown that the presence of the slow flow lead to the delay in ice wall closure. In case of the flow with a velocity of more than 30 mm per day, closure of the ice wall was not observed at all in the foreseeable time.

Freezing on demand: A new concept for mine safety and energy savings in wet underground mines

The artificial ground freezing(AGF)systems are designed to operate continuously for an extended period of time to control the groundwater seepage and to strengthen the groundwater structure surrounding excavation areas.This mode of operation requires a massive amount of energy to sustain the thickness of the frozen body.Therefore,it is of great interest to propose new concepts to reduce energy consumption while providing sufficient structural stability and safe operation.This paper discusses the principle of the freezing on demand(FoD)by means of experiment and mathematical model.A lab-scale rig that mimics the AGF process is conceived and developed.The setup is equipped with more than 80 thermocouples,flow-meters,and advanced instrumentation system to analyze the performance of the AGF process under the FoD concept.A mathematical model has been derived,validated,and utilized to simulate the transient FoD concept.The results suggest that the overall energy saving notably depends on the coolant’s temperature;the energy saving increases while decreasing the coolant inlet temperature.Moreover,applying the FoD concept in an AGF system leads to a significant drop in energy consumption.

Coupled thermo-hydro-mechanical modeling of frost heave and water migration during artificial freezing of soils for mineshaft sinking

Artificial freezing of water-bearing soil layers composing a sedimentary deposit can induce frost heave and water migration that affect the natural stress-strain state of the soil layers and freezing process.In the present paper,a thermo-hydro-mechanical(THM)model for freezing of water-saturated soil is proposed to study the effects of frost heave and water migration in frozen soils on the formation of a frozen wall and subsequent excavation activity for sinking a vertical shaft.The governing equations of the model are formulated relative to porosity,temperature,and displacement which are considered as primary variables.The relationship between temperature,pore water,and ice pressure in frozen soil is established by the Clausius-Clapeyron equation,whereas the interaction between the stress-strain behavior and changes in porosity and pore pressure is described with the poromechanics theory.Moreover,constitutive relations for additional mechanical deformation are incorporated to describe volumetric expansion of soil during freezing as well as creep strain of soil in the frozen state.The ability of the proposed model to capture the frost heave of frozen soil is demonstrated by a comparison between numerical results and experimental data given by a one-sided freezing test.Also to validate the model in other freezing conditions,a radial freezing experiment is performed.After the validation procedure,the model is applied to numerical simulation of artificial freezing of silt and sand layers for shaft sinking at Petrikov potash mine in Belarus.Comparison of calculated temperature with thermal monitoring data during active freezing stage is presented.Numerical analysis of deformation of unsupported sidewall of a shaft inside the frozen wall is conducted to account for the change in natural stress-strain state of soil layers induced by artificial freezing.

Artificially frozen ground and related engineering technology in Japan

Since the 1970's, frozen ground has been developing near the Tokyo Bay area around liquefied natural gas(LNG) inground storage tanks. For disaster prevention purposes, the tanks are constructed below the ground surface. Since the temperature of the liquid stored in the tanks is -162℃ the soil surrounding the tanks freezes. Since this frozen ground has existed for almost half a century, we have permafrost near Tokyo. The development of artificial frozen ground may cause frost heaving, resulting in frost heave forces that may cause structural damage of adjacent LNG in-ground storage tanks.Therefore, the demand for frozen ground engineering increased and consequently we now have advanced technology in this area. Fortunately, we use this engineering technology and artificial ground freezing for civil engineering, especially in big and crowded cities like Tokyo. This paper provides a summary of the testing apparatus, test methods, and assessment methods for frost heaving.

渗流地层地铁联络通道冻结壁形成过程及其影响因素分析

冻结法凭借封水性好、适应性强和环境影响小等优势成为地铁联络通道施工的主要工法之一,而地下水渗流易引起冻结壁交圈时间延后、厚度和平均温度不及预期,对冻结工程的推进具有不利影响。本文采用频域反射法获取饱和砂砾石未冻水体积分数和温度的函数关系式,基于多孔介质传热和渗流理论,建立考虑相变的饱和地层渗流冻结流热耦合数学模型,利用联络通道冻结模型试验结果验证流热耦合模型的有效性。在此基础上,研究渗流速度、冷媒温度、冻结管直径和渗流温度对联络通道冻结壁形成过程和交圈时间的影响规律。最后,采用正交试验方法对冻结壁形成过程影响因素的显著性进行分析,提出考虑多因素影响的冻结壁交圈时间和标厚时间预测方法。研究结果表明:无渗流时,联络通道冻结温度场呈W型对称分布;当渗流速度为51.2 m/d时,地层温度场不再呈对称分布,上游区域温度高于下游区域温度。渗流速度是影响联络通道冻结壁形成的首要因素,冻结管直径和冷媒温度次之,渗流温度对交圈时间的影响较小。上游侧墙是渗流地层冻结壁扩展的薄弱环节,应加强该区域温度场的监测,跟踪冻结壁的形成过程。

基坑免降水开挖的组合式冻结法支护工艺研究

近年来,随着地下水资源保护力度的不断增大,对基坑工程进行免降水开挖的需求愈加紧迫。为解决富水地层基坑工程施工中的免降水问题,提出一种新的基坑支护方法:传统悬挂式止水帷幕与水平冻土止水帷幕相结合的“组合式冻结法”。根据以往市政工程中的冻结法施工经验,总结组合式冻结法的施工流程,提出泄压孔、温度限位孔和局部冻结技术相结合的冻胀控制措施,以及利用冻结管嵌入地连墙的界面区强化措施。通过模型试验对组合式冻结法的可行性进行验证,试验结果表明,组合式冻结法可以有效实现基底的支护,在冻结薄弱环节临时竖井、地连墙附近冻结壁承载能力满足设计要求;观测发现地层冻结对地连墙强度和变形无明显影响。

高流速卵石地层地铁联络通道人工冻结温度场研究

地铁联络通道的开挖经常受到地下水干扰,人工地层冻结法凭借其优秀的封水性和适应性成为富水地层联络通道施工的首选工法。依托北京地铁12号线苏州桥站~人民大学站区间1#联络通道冻结工程,通过现场实测研究地层温度场和泄压孔压力的发展规律,分析冻结帷幕的交圈特征,确定高流速地层冻结壁薄弱位置。结果表明:盐水去回路温度在冻结初期迅速下降,而后降速减缓并最终稳定在-28℃以下;测温孔中土体与管片交界处的温度高于土体内部,渗流上游冻结壁温度高于下游,这些区域应当重点监测;冻结至59 d时,利用基于实际降温速率的分阶段冻结壁厚度计算方法求得不同截面位置处的冻结壁最小厚度为2495.2 mm,同时泄压孔压力已全部释放并保持稳定,冻结壁不再发展,满足联络通道开挖要求。研究成果能为高流速地层的人工冻结参数选取和监测提供理论支持。

人工冻结联络通道冻胀三维扩展规律模型试验研究

为解决人工冻结联络通道冻土冻胀引发管片结构安全难题,采用相似模拟试验方法,对人工冻结过程中冻土三维冻胀特性进行了模型试验研究,得出以下结论:①冻胀引发地表及地表下20、40、60mm上覆土体曲线呈现冻结壁上部位置变形较大、边界位置变形较小的趋势,冻胀引发地表抬升曲线呈现高斯分布特征;②管片变形大致分为小变形-大变形-小变形3个阶段;③冻结壁径向扩展体积与轴向扩展体积比为15∶1,冻结壁径向扩展厚度与轴向扩展厚度比为1.1∶1。研究结果对不同约束下的人工冻土三维扩展规律进行了初步探索。

基于冻结器温升公式的单排管温度场求解方法

为了解决传统地铁联络通道冻结法施工中对于全加固区域温度场求解精度不足的问题,实现以冻结器自身温度信号进行所形成温度场求解,达到对冻结温度场全域进行精准求解的目的。从单根冻结管停冻后冷媒温度回升速率与冻结壁厚度的相互关系出发,建立更加符合地铁联络通道冻结工程特点的单排冻结孔温度场计算模型,提出了5个关键参数:冷媒温升速率V、冻结壁厚度计算系数ηA和ηB以及冻结壁厚度修订系数n1和n2的确定方法。并指出冷媒温升速率宜采用停冻后4 h的冷媒温度平均回升速率,冻结壁计算系数和厚度修订系数应采用数值计算或经验数据进行确定。进而提出了新温度场求解方法的适用范围、求解流程。后续利用北京某联络通道冻结工程开展新温度场求解方法的可靠性验证。通过将该联络通道侧墙区域温度场的求解结果和实测地层数据进行对比可知,新的温度场求解方法所得温度与测温孔实测温度差值分别为0.43℃和0.52℃,远低于控制指标1.0℃。同时,新求解方法所得冻结壁厚度与开挖后实测冻结壁厚度误差为8~10 cm,误差精度约为6%,符合工程精度要求。此外基于计算结果和现场分析,指出了计算误差主要是由于地层热物理参数测试精度不足、钻孔偏斜以及冻结管自身结构简化三方面造成的。同时根据既有研究成果,给出了我国多个城市(如上海、常州、苏州)典型地层的冻结壁厚度计算系数。本研究为新型温度场计算方法的落地实施和开展基于冻结器自身温度数据进行全域温度场求解提供了理论支撑,同时避免了传统“以点带面”式求解方法带来的非测温孔区域温度误差。

富水砂层斜井明挖段三维冻结温度场时空演化规律研究

为解决冻结斜井明挖段施工过程中,斜井冻结温度场难以准确预测导致开挖时间及速度无法确定的工程难题,以升富煤矿冻结斜井明挖段为研究对象,基于实测地层特性及冻结孔布置参数,采用COMSOL Multiphysics有限元软件,构建三维冻结温度场数值计算模型,对冻结斜井明挖段施工期间温度场的时空演化规律进行数值计算预测分析。计算结果表明:在相同冻结时间条件下,细砂层冻结壁平均温度比中砂层低0.28~2.39℃,细砂层冻结壁有效厚度比中砂层厚0.36~0.59 m。在持续冻结88 d后,明挖段冻结壁平均温度低于-12℃,且不同层位的侧帮冻结壁厚度均能达到4 m以上,底板处的冻结壁厚度均达到5 m以上,满足设计开挖需求。在开挖期间,井帮位置暴露的土体存在“热流侵蚀”现象,但在快速开挖施工的条件下,冻结壁的有效厚度并未减小且冻结壁平均温度仍处于-10℃以下,因此开挖过程中不会发生大范围的冻结壁“软化”现象。基于预测结果,制定了现场开挖方案,由现场实测数据可知,在开挖过程中测点及井帮温度出现轻微波动,但整体温度发展趋势较为稳定,表明施工期间冻结壁是安全稳定的。研究成果可为斜井冻结法凿井的安全施工及优化设计提供参考。

Study on the freezing–thawing deformation of consolidated soils under high pressure

The freezing-thawing deformation behaviors of consolidated soils under high pressure have been investigated in a high-pressure-low-temperature （HPLT） Kq consolidation apparatus with a small strain sensor. The tests cover a variety of frozen soil temperatures ranging from -2℃ to -10 ℃, and a series of applied pressures ranging from 1 MPa to 5 MPa. The test results show that, for the consolidated soils under high pressure, their freezing-thawing deformation was caused by the realignment and the deformation of soil particles, the phase change of water, and the water redistribution in the soil. As for the deformation produced by thermal expansion and contraction,it is about 0.04-0.05 mm, accounting for only about 7%~9% of the total deformation. Taking the freezing-thawing deformation produced by temperature disturbance as a creep deformation, the creep models of the developing soil deformation will be determined by the soil＇s final temperature, i.e., the desired temperature. For the soils under a desired temperature between -2℃ and -5℃, the freezing-thawing de-formation develops according to a non-attenuation creep model; but for the soils with a desired temperature lower than -5℃, a full attenuation creep model is followed. The applied pressure and soil type also have a significant influence on the maximum freezing deformation. Generally, the greater the desired pressure applied, the less the maximum deformation is; and the loess freezing deformation is larger than that of sand.

A Frost Heaving Prediction Approach for Ground Uplift Simulation Due to Freeze-Sealing Pipe Roof Method

Freeze-sealing pipe roof method is applied in the Gongbei tunnel,which causes the ground surface uplift induced by frost heave.A frost heaving prediction approach based on the coefficient of cold expansion is proposed to simulate the ground deformation of the Gongbei tunnel.The coefficient of cold expansion in the model and the frost heaving rate from the frost heave test under the hydration condition can achieve a good correspondence making the calculation result closer to the actual engineering.The ground surface uplift along the lateral and longitudinal direction are respectively analyzed and compared with the field measured data to validate the model.The results show that a good agreement between the frost heaving prediction model and the field measured data verifies the rationality and applicability of the proposed model.The maximum uplift of the Gongbei tunnel appears at the center of the model,gradually decreasing along with the lateral and longitudinal directions.The curve in the lateral direction presents a normal distribution due to the influence of the constraint of two sides,while the one along the lateral direction shapes like a parabola with the opening downward due to the temperature field distribution.The model provides a reference for frost heaving engineering calculation.

地下水渗流对联络通道冻结帷幕影响研究

为探究流速对联络通道冻结温度场的影响,基于水热耦合理论构建地下水渗流条件下地铁联络通道冻结法施工数值计算模型,并采用现场实测数据对模型的合理性进行验证。运用该模型对南通市地铁2号线联络通道冻结帷幕的发展规律进行计算分析。结果表明,当地下水流速为3、6、9m/d时,冻结帷幕的交圈时间分别为20、28、34d。冻结帷幕交圈后,联络通道左墙(位于地下水上游)外侧与上、下墙外侧冻结帷幕厚度的增加速率均减小。在同一冻结时间下,随着流速增大,左墙内侧厚度增大,外侧厚度减小,右墙内侧厚度减小,外侧厚度增大,其中左墙内侧与右墙外侧增加的最为突出。在冻结稳定时期,冻结帷幕厚度的增加主要体现在内侧,外侧由于受地下水流速的影响,厚度增长率较低。由此可知,地下水流速是影响冻结帷幕发展情况的原因之一,流速越大冻结帷幕发展不均匀性越大,位于上游冻结壁发展速度越慢,下游冻结壁发展速度越快。该研究对探究不同流速下粉质粘土层联络通道冻结壁的发展状况具有参考价值。

人工冻土冻胀引发地面变形规律及影响范围探究

采用随机介质理论和模型试验方法,基于现场测试数据和文献发表数据,分析了人工冻土冻胀引发地面变形规律和冻胀影响范围。结果表明:(1)随机介质理论计算结果表明人工冻土冻胀引发地面变形曲线是一条高斯型二重积分曲线;(2)物理模型试验得出地面抬升曲线规律与高斯分布拟合度较高,试验地面抬升曲线的高斯分布拟合系数为0.97747,工程实测数据的高斯分布拟合系数为0.94932~0.99553,对文献数据拟合得出拟合系数位于0.95441~0.98344;(3)冻结引发地面变形范围为8~10倍冻胀丘宽度。冻结壁为对称结构或拟对称结构时,冻胀引发地面变形曲线可以采用高斯分布进行拟合。该结论可以为人工冻土冻胀引发上部地面变形量计算及影响范围提供设计参考。

60m级超长联络通道冻结法施工融沉控制研究

软土地区城市地铁建设联络通道往往采用冻结法进行土体加固,但冻结法存在冻胀融沉问题,尤其是超长联络通道解冻后融沉控制更为重要.本文依托福州地铁2号线紫阳站—五里亭站区间66 m国内最长的超长联络通道工程,采用自然解冻+精细融沉补偿注浆,通过科学设置冻结设计参数控制冻结范围,科学布置冻结孔、注浆孔,优化注浆参数,在注浆施工中采用精细控制措施,有效完成了融沉注浆施工.实测结果表明:该超长联络通道冻土体量大,融沉量相比常规联络通道地表沉降更大,范围更广,在离联络通道较近位置沉降量大;超过25 m后,沉降量较小.联络通道轴线处两端沉降量是中间沉降量的1.7倍;融沉注浆施工后,最大沉降量为12 mm,满足施工控制要求,可为后续类似工程提供经验参考.

富水地层地铁超长联络通道冻结位移场演化规律研究

人工冻结法因其安全可靠、环境友好等优点,被广泛应用于地铁联络通道的地层加固中。然而,相较于传统的联络通道,采用冻结法加固超长联络通道存在冻结体量大,地表冻胀控制难度高等特点。现有的研究成果难以充分描述其冻结位移场的发展规律,为此,依托福州市地铁2号线上洋站~鼓山站区间超长联络通道,该联络通道采用分区冻结主体和泵站、错开起始冻结时间等措施对地表冻胀进行控制。采用现场实测数据分析、数值模拟以及灰色关联分析等研究方法对该超长联络通道的冻结温度场和位移场的演化规律进行研究。研究结果表明:在错开冻结起始时间的情况下,冻结温度场和位移场的分布仍然具有良好的对称性,同时确定了冻结壁的薄弱位置应在该超长联络通道推迟冻结一侧的洞深方向12~15 m范围内。在联络通道洞身上方存在一个“圆饼”状的冻胀集中区域,地层位移场的发展表现出以该区域为核心向外衰减的特点,该联络通道的隆起特征值为43.16 mm,影响特征范围为21.95 m。就地层温度、盐水温度以及通道埋深而言,隆起特征值对通道埋深最为敏感,而影响特征范围受盐水温度影响最为显著。因此,为控制地表冻胀,在隧道的设计阶段可科学适当地加深超长联络通道的埋深,或在维护冻结期内安全合理地控制盐水的最低温度。研究成果可为今后同类长距离水平冻结工程的冻胀控制提供参考。

地下水流速对地铁联络通道冻结壁形成过程影响的模型试验

人工地层冻结技术具有封水可靠、对环境影响小、适用性强等优势,是城市地铁建设中暗挖工程达到无水施工环境行之有效的工法之一。地下水流动加速了对流传热,导致冻结壁交圈困难,厚度不及预期。依托北京地铁19号线草桥站―景风门站区间联络通道冻结工程,基于相似理论开展实际工程地下水流速分别为0、5、10、15m/d的联络通道冻结模型试验,研究渗流对冻结壁形成过程的影响效应,讨论制冷功率在冻结进程中的变化规律。研究表明:渗流条件下,联络通道底板和顶板先交圈,其次是下游侧墙,上游侧墙受对流传热影响显著,是冻结工程的薄弱环节。地下水流速为0、5、10m/d时,联络通道冻结壁的交圈时间分别为60、114、444min;流速为15m/d时,冻结壁不能实现交圈。地下水流速越大,制冷功率越高,流速为5、10、15m/d时的有效能耗较静水条件分别增长67.0%、88.5%和120.1%。研究成果可为渗流条件下联络通道冻结工程的设计和施工提供依据。

人工冻结隧道密贴下穿结构冻胀位移计算方法探究

冻结法是富水软土地层新建隧道下穿上部结构的重要方法,其中冻土与结构密贴穿越工程是冻结下穿工程中风险最高、难度最大的工况之一。基于上海轨道交通新建18号线下穿已运营10号线国权路地铁车站工程,采用极限拉应变法思路计算密贴穿越过程中上覆结构冻胀抬升变形,推导了水平冻结密贴施工引起上部结构冻胀位移的计算公式,将上覆地层土体变形看作刚度为土体刚度的“结构”变形。进行了冻结密贴相似模拟试验,得出上海地区⑧4灰色粉质黏土中冻结壁外锋面扩展系数A=165。工程采用分段控制冻结、错峰控制冻结、取土泄压等多种冻胀控制方法,施工过程中车站底板实际抬升位移为15.0mm,公式计算车站冻胀抬升为42.7mm,相似模拟试验抬升位移值为30.0mm,公式计算值为保守值。研究成果将为冻结密贴下穿工程建设提供数据参考和理论支撑。