Research Review of Principles and Methods for Ultrasonic Measurement of Axial Stress in Bolts

Bolts are important fasteners indispensable in the manufacturing field for their advantages, which include convenient assembly and disassembly, easy maintenance, refastenability to prevent looseness, and the avoidance of a phase change in the connected material composition. The precise control of the tightening force in bolts is closely related to the safety and reliability of the connected equipment or structure. Although there are many methods for estimating the tightening force applied to a bolt during assembly, poor accuracy in controlling the preload during the tightening process and a lack of monitoring to determine the residual axial force in service remain issues in evaluating the safety of bolted assemblies. As a nondestructive testing technology, ultrasonic measurement can be applied to successfully address these issues. In order to help researchers understand the theoretical basis and technological development in this field and to equip them to conduct further in-depth research, in this review, the basic knowledge describing the state of stress and deformation of bolts, as well as conventional testing methods are summarized and analyzed. Then, through a review of recent research of the ultrasonic measurement of the axial stress in bolts, the influence of the e ective stressed length and temperature are analyzed and proposed methods of calibration and compensation are reviewed. In order to avoid coupling errors caused by traditional piezoelectric transducers, two newly proposed ultrasonic coupling technologies, the electromagnetic acoustic transducer(EMAT) and the permanent mounted transducer system(PMTS), are reviewed. Finally, the new direction of research of the detection of residual axial stress in in-service bolts that have been assembled to yield is discussed.

Stress Concentrations for Slotted Plates in Bi-Axial Stress

The photo-elastic method has been employed to determine stress concentration factor (SCF) for square plates containing holes and inclined slots when the plate edges are subjected to in-plane tension combined with compression. Analyses given of the isochromatic fringe pattern surrounding the hole provides the SCF conveniently. The model material is calibrated from the known solution to the stress raiser arising from a small circular hole in a plate placed under biaxial tension-compression. These results also compare well with a plane stress FE analysis. Consequently, photo-elasticity has enabled SCF’s to be determined experimentally for a biaxial stress ratio, nominally equal to –4, in plates containing a long, thin slot arranged to be in alignment with each stress axis. The two, principal stresses lying along axes of symmetry in the region surrounding the notch are separated within each isochromatic fringe by the Kuske method [1]. FE provides a comparable full-field view in which contours of maximum shear stress may be identified with the isochromatic fringe pattern directly. The principal stress distributions referred to the plate axes show their maximum concentrations at the notch boundary. Here up to a fourfold magnification occurs in the greater of the two nominal stresses under loads applied to the plate edges. Thus, it is of importance to establish the manner in which the tangential stress is distributed around the slot boundary. Conveniently, it is shown how this distribution is also revealed from an isochro-matic fringe pattern, within which lie the points of maximum tension and maximum compression.

Torsional Fatigue Cracking and Fracture Behaviors of Cold-Drawn Copper:Effects of Microstructure and Axial Stress

The fatigue cracking and fracture behavior of cold-drawn copper subjected to cyclic torsional loading were investigated in this study.It was found that with increasing stress amplitude,the fracture mode of cold-drawn copper gradually changes from a shear fracture on transverse maximum shear stress plane to a mixed shear mode on both transverse and longitudinal shear planes and finally turns to the shear fracture on multiple longitudinal shear planes.Combining the cracking morphology and the relationship between torsional fatigue cracking and the grain boundaries,the fracture mechanism of cold-drawn copper under cyclic torsional loading was analyzed and proposed by considering the effects of the microstructure and axial stress caused by torsion.Because of the promotion of the grain boundary distribution on longitudinal crack propagation and the inhibition of axial stress on transverse crack grown,the tendency of crack propagation along the longitudinal direction increases with increasing stress levels.

Nonlinear Analysis of Axial-load and Stress Distribution for Threaded Connection

Analytical method for the distributions of axial-load and stress is based on elastic assumption, but the threaded connections are often in plastic deformation stage in practice. Meanwhile the strain in the threaded connection is difficult to measure. So it is necessary to study the reliable numerical method. At present neither the convergence analysis of the computational results nor the elastic-plastic analysis in the loading-unloading process are studied. In this paper, von Mises plasticity and kinematic hardening model is used to describe the material response. A new convergence criterion for nonlinear finite element analysis of the loading-unloading process is proposed. An axisymmetric finite element model according to the proposed convergence criterion is developed and used to analyze the distributions of axial-load and stress. It can be conclude that the stress distribution analysis is more dependent on the mesh density than the axial-load distribution analysis. The stress distribution result indicates that with increasing of applied load, the engaged threads close to the nut-bearing surface become plastic firstly. The axial-load distribution result reveals that the load percentage carried by single thread depends on the position of thread and load intensity. When the load is relatively small, the applied load is mainly carried by the engaged threads near the nut-bearing surface, when the load is larger, the differences of percentages for all threads become small. The proposed convergence analyzing procedure is applicable for other nonlinear analyses. The obtained distributions of axial-load and stress can be a reference of engineering application.

Buckling of un—stiffened cylindrical shell under non—uniform axial compressive stress

This paper provides a review of recent research advances and trends in the area of stability of unstiffened circular cylindrical shells subjected to general non-uniform axial compressive stresses.Only the more important and interesting aspects of the research,judged from a personal viewpoint,are discussed.They can be crudely classified into four categories:(1) shells subjected to non-uniform loads;(2) shells on discrete supports;(3) shells with intended cutouts/holes;and (4) shells with non-uniform settlements.

Identifying crack initiation stress threshold in brittle rocks using axial strain stiffness characteristics

As an estimate for the in-situ spalling strength around massive underground excavations to moderately jointed brittle rocks, crack initiation stress marks the initiation of rock micro fracturing. It is crucial to accurately identify crack initiation stress level by proper method. In this study, confined compression tests of sandstone samples are used to examine the validity/applicability of proposed axial strain stiffness method. The results show that by highlighting the minuscule changes in stress-strain curve, the axial strain stiffness curve provided further insight into rock failure process and revealed five stages:(a) irregular fluctuation,(b) nearly horizontal regular fluctuation,(c) irregular fluctuation gradually decreasing to zero,(d) extreme fluctuation, and(e) near zero, which mainly correspond to five stages of stress–strain curve. The ratio of crack-initiation stress to peak strength determined using this approach is 0.44–0.51, similar to the ranges previously reported by other researchers. In this method, the key is to accurately detect the end point of the stage(b), "nearly horizontal regular fluctuation" characterized by a sudden change in axial strain stiffness curve, and the sudden change signifies crack initiation in rock sample. Finally, the research indicates that the axial strain stiffness curve can provide a mean to identify the crack-initiation stress thresholds in brittle rocks.

Crack initiation stress and strain of jointed rock containing multi-cracks under uniaxial compressive loading: A particle flow code approach

The ratio of crack initiation stress to the uniaxial compressive strength(SCI,B/SUC,B) and the ratio of axial strain at the crack initiation stress to the axial strain at the uniaxial compressive strength(B,UCB,CI,A,A/SSSS) were studied by performing numerical stress analysis on blocks having multi flaws at close spacing's under uniaxial loading using PFC3 D. The following findings are obtained: SCI,B/SUC,B has an average value of about 0.5 with a variability of ± 0.1. This range agrees quite well with the values obtained by former research. For joint inclination angle, β=90°,B,UCB,CI,A,A/SSSS is found to be around 0.48 irrespective of the value of joint continuity factor, k. No particular relation is found betweenB,UCB,CI,A,A/SSSS and β; however, the average B,UCB,CI,A,A/SSSS seems to slightly decrease with increasing k. The variability ofB,UCB,CI,A,A/SSSS is found to increase with k.Based on the cases studied in this work,B,UCB,CI,A,A/SSSS ranges between 0.3 and 0.5. This range is quite close to the range of 0.4to 0.6 obtained for SCI,B/SUC,B. The highest variability of ± 0.12 forB,UCB,CI,A,A/SSSS is obtained for k=0.8. For the remaining k values the variability ofB,UCB,CI,A,A/SSSS can be expressed within ± 0.05. This finding is very similar to the finding obtained for the variability of SCI,B/SUC,B.

Stress field of orthotropic cylinder subjected to axial compression

Based on the constancy hypothesis of material volume, the circumferential and radial stresses of a cylinder specimen are analyzed when the cylinder is subject to a loading along the axial direction. The circumferential and radial stress distribution is a power function of radius parameter when the constitutive relation of specimen material is orthotropic. The stress distribution is a quadratic function of radius parameter for transversely isotropic material. Along the cylinder axial line, the circumferential and radial stresses are maximum and equal to each other. In the circumference boundary surface, the radial stress is zero and the circumferential stress value is minimal. The failure theory of maximum tensile circumferential strain is applied to calculate the critical axial loading. The circumference-boundary-layer failure criterion of orthotropic cylinders is described with the Hill-Tsai strength theory. The obtained strength theory is related to axial stress and mechanical properties of specimen material and to the specimen axialdeformation strain rate and the change rate of strain rate.

ON THE ORIGIN OF STRESS PEAK IN UNI-AXIAL STRETCHING OF AMORPHOUS POLYMERS

Rubber of high molar mass, like cis-polybutadiene, shows's stress peak on the engineering stress-strain curve during stretching at room temperature. In this work cis-polybutadiene samples were swollen in a poor solvent, CHCl3/EtOH (1/1 v/v), for different times. It was found that both the initial modulus and the stress peak on stretching decreased in magnitude with increasing swelling time and the peak disappeared entirely after 1 hour of swelling. On further swelling the initial modulus increased somewhat and a small stress peak re-appeared after swelling for 2 h. The disappearance of the stress peak after swelling is interpreted as the result of disruption of cohesional entanglements present in the initial rubber sample. The re-appearance of a small stress peak and the increase of modulus on further swelling are interpreted as being of the same nature as the phenomenon of anti-plasticization. It is the result of forming some new cohesional entanglements of larger binding energies through longer range chain segmental motions excited after the disruption of the previously existing cohesional entanglements in the rubber. Thus an understanding of the stress peak on stretching a high molar mass rubber and the phenomenon of anti-plasticization on molecular level has been put forward.

三向非等压应力场下围岩主应力差与塑性区分布关系研究

首先,以弹性理论为基础推导出考虑巷道轴向应力影响的主应力差解析式,通过变化水平侧压比、轴向侧压比研究完全弹性条件时不同应力场下主应力差分布形态演化规律。其次,推导出考虑轴向应力作用的围岩塑性区近似解,研究不同应力环境下围岩的塑性区形态演化规律。最后,对比分析主应力差及塑性区形态特征,研究二者分布形态的对应关系,并通过数值模拟验证理论分析的正确性。研究结果表明:在弹性理论下,三向应力场条件的主应力差值分布会呈现圆形、椭圆形、蝶形3种形态的演化规律;在考虑巷道塑性破坏的情况下,主应力差值在σx、σz较小一侧形成峰值壳,在较大一侧形成卸压壳。在不同水平侧压比及轴向侧压比情况下,围岩塑性区形态会呈现圆形—椭圆形、椭圆形—蝶形、蝶形恶性扩展3个阶段的演化过程。巷道主应力差的分布形态在一定程度上可以反映塑性区形态,主应力差和塑性区在相同应力条件下的形态特征具有逐一对应关系,且二者形态在很大程度上由水平侧压比决定,轴向侧压比对塑性区形态影响较小。160206回风巷在偏转式主应力差集中区形成非对称异化特征。本文基于分析及现场破坏情况提出的联合协同支护技术在现场应用效果较好。

横向滑坡作用下埋地管道轴向应力研究

山区敷设的埋地管道经常受山地滑坡尤其是横向滑坡的影响,会造成埋地管道变形、破裂等,不利于管道的安全运行。文中对横向滑坡作用下管道的轴向应力进行研究,选择非线性接触模型进行有限元分析,改变管周土壤粘聚力、泊松比、内压、径厚比进行有限元计算。结果表明:滑坡位移中部、边缘处应力集中且滑坡位移边缘管道3点方向受压、9点方向受拉,滑坡位移中部管道3点方向受拉、9点方向受压。通过分析管道轴向应力的变化曲线,归纳管道轴向应力的变化公式,为管道的防护提供理论参考。

基于液压胀破测试方法的聚合物防水膜多轴拉伸性能表征

本研究设计了一种基于液压胀破的多轴拉伸测试装置和数据处理方法,以准确表征聚合物防水膜的拉伸性能。测试结果显示:随着防水膜厚度的增加,拉伸峰值应力降低;随着试件直径的增加,拉伸峰值应力增加;与单轴拉伸相比,多轴拉伸避免了“颈缩”效应,断裂伸长率降低;防水膜的应力-应变曲线符合线性应变强化弹塑性模型,并可通过多轴拉伸试验拟合得到相关参数。结论表明,多轴拉伸方法结果更接近实际工况下的应力-应变响应,可为合理评估防水膜在工程环境中的力学性能提供参考和借鉴。

轴向荷载作用下小规格拉铆钉和普通螺栓疲劳性能对比研究

拉铆钉因其良好的防松动、抗疲劳和防腐性能以及较强的环境适应性等特点而被广泛应用于航空航天、轨道交通、桥梁建筑等领域。为解决光伏支架中螺栓连接易发生疲劳的问题,现研究一种国产新型拉铆钉的轴向疲劳性能,用以代替普通螺栓连接进而提高光伏支架的疲劳寿命。对LMY8和LMY10小规格拉铆钉及同规格的普通螺栓进行了轴向荷载作用下的静力试验和疲劳试验,并利用ABAQUS软件进行了拉铆钉铆接过程的模拟,利用FE-Safe软件对拉铆钉疲劳寿命进行了模拟。研究结果表明:在同样条件下,铆钉的疲劳性能优于普通螺栓的疲劳性能;拉铆钉在轴向荷载作用下的疲劳断口位于套环和锁紧环槽啮合的第一圈螺纹处,此处应力集中是拉铆钉发生疲劳失效的主要原因;拉铆钉的疲劳寿命会随着最小荷载的增大而提高,随最大荷载的增大而降低;由疲劳云图可知,拉铆钉在承受轴向循环荷载作用时,铆钉头部下方R角过渡处也会产生较大的应力,此区域也是易发生疲劳失效的部位。

基于截面增大法的扣放角钢焊接加固负载H型钢的轴压承载力研究

负载下焊接加固是既有结构加固的重要形式,然而当前对加固形式及加固效果的研究仍然较为缺乏.因此,提出了一种新型负载焊接加固构造,设计了8组扣放角钢焊接加固H型钢试验.研究了焊接过程中的截面应力重分布规律以及焊接加固H型钢柱的轴压力学性能.试验中加固构件的截面为加固前的1.53倍~1.55倍,焊接加固后构件极限承载增大为加固前的1.74倍~1.90倍;加固构件和原构件协同工作,获得了良好的加固效果,虽然焊接热输入降低了构件焊缝间隔处的屈曲应力,但负载加固的构件表现出相对零载加固构件更高的极限承载力.随后建立并验证了一种新型焊接加固H型钢柱的数值模拟方法,探究了不同截面面积加固构件的加固效果;揭示了不同焊缝间隔以及焊接热效应对加固构件极限承载力的影响,并建立了相应的设计方法.

基于超声多尺度衰减的螺栓轴向应力评价

针对超声波传统衰减法测量高强度短螺栓应-力时,难以达到预期精度,提出了一种基于超声散射衰减理论和小波多尺度分解的测量螺栓应力的方法。基于立方晶系材料的瑞利散射,推导了超声衰减系数与应力关系的理论模型。利用小波变换得到各个尺度的衰减系数并定义加权超声多尺度衰减系数,结合粒子群优化算法和灰色关联分析确定衰减系数最优尺度组合及其归一化权重系数,建立轴向应力的超声多尺度衰减测量模型。利用搭建的螺栓轴向应力超声波测量系统,对普通螺栓进行轴向应力测量,证明了该方法的可行性。对比了多尺度衰减法与渡越时间和传统衰减法对高强度短螺栓轴向应力的测量结果,验证了多尺度超声衰减法更适合高强度短螺栓的轴向应力测量。

基于超声导波的螺栓轴向应力测量方法

风电叶片是风力发电机的核心部件,叶片螺栓不仅是承受复杂应力的零件,也是承受最高负载的零件。为避免螺栓断裂造成危险隐患和经济损失,设计了一种基于超声导波的在役螺栓轴向应力测量系统,可实现对多种型号螺栓轴向应力的精确测量。首先,通过数值计算得到超声导波群速度频散曲线,基于胡克定律和声弹性效应建立了螺栓轴向应力与超声导波声时的线性数学模型,并在COMSOL软件中通过仿真验证了单纵波换能器实现超声导波应力测量的有效性。然后,针对超声导波回波信号模态混叠以及实际测量中噪声对超声导波声时测量结果的干扰,利用基于回波补偿的降噪算法实现了对实际测量信号的降噪处理,并采用经验小波变换算法对超声导波回波信号进行了模态分解,利用互相关法得到超声导波模态的精确声时。最后,通过实验测试完成了18种型号的螺栓在30%~90%屈服强度内的轴向应力的精确测量,相对测量误差小于2%。研究结果有助于改进螺栓装配工艺以及规范工人操作流程。

基于长短期记忆网络的FRP约束混凝土圆柱循环轴压应力-应变预测模型

纤维增强复合材料(Fiber reinforced polymer,FRP)已被广泛应用于既有混凝土结构的加固改造和新建结构中。FRP约束混凝土柱在地震作用下通常会受到轴压的往复循环作用,研究FRP约束混凝土在循环轴压作用下的应力-应变特性对于FRP在实际工程中的应用具有重要意义。该文提出了一种用于建模循环轴压下FRP约束混凝土柱应力-应变特性的神经网络预测模型,该模型采用长短期记忆(Long short-term memory,LSTM)单元对循环应力-应变曲线中的滞回特性进行建模,构件的物理参数被有效地集成在网络的输入中。该模型能以端到端的方式进行高效的训练且不依赖任何专家经验。制作了一个包含166个FRP约束普通混凝土柱的循环轴压数据库,在该数据库上对模型的准确性和鲁棒性进行了充分的评估,结果表明测试集平均预测误差仅为0.32 MPa。此外,对网络结构和超参数的影响进行了详细的讨论,结果表明该模型具有出色的预测性能。

Numerical Si mulation of Inner Stress Fields for Stretching Block With Rectangular Section Between Flat Anvils

The stretch of blocks with rectangular section using flat anvils was simulated by using ANSYS software. The inner stress distribution for different tool width ratio w/h and blank width ratio b/h was studied. Consequent- ly, critical anvil width ratio （w/h）c and critical blank width ratio （b/h）c are obtained, which provide a sound basis for designing reasonable stretching technology.

基于剪滞理论的纤维应力分布分析

探讨拉压过程中纤维与基体之间的应力,利用弹性力学基本理论,根据Cox剪滞模型,推导轴向力和剪切力理论数学公式。在推导过程中,将径向力考虑在内,同时纤维与基体间的应力传递过程需要通过剪切应力来实现,最终求解轴向力,对轴向力和剪切力的分布作图并进行详细分析。最终发现径向力存在的情况下,最大剪应力有所降低,降低幅度达5.25%,最大轴向力有所提升,提升幅度达3.76%。同时,在拉伸过程中发现纤维两端出现了最大剪应力,而最大轴向力出现在纤维中心处。

基于盒维数与锚杆无损检测技术的杆体应力波特性研究

为了研究复杂岩层中剪切力与轴向载荷对反射信号特性的影响,将分形维数中的盒维数与应力波特性参数应用到锚杆无损检测之中。通过在锚杆自由端中间加载不同大小的集中载荷,分析了同一试件上加载不同的动态载荷力与不同试件加载不同剪切力对应力波特性的影响。使用MATLAB软件对检测信号进行盒维数计算,研究在不同情况下的盒维数变化规律;对检测信号幅值、有效值、标准差、幅频进行分析,判断其信号强度及其规律。研究结果表明:随着锚固结构轴向载荷与锚杆自由端剪力的逐渐增加,信号强度逐渐减弱;剪切力大小影响锚杆的极限承载能力,随着剪切力的逐渐增大,盒维数会不断增加,锚固结构的极限承载能力也会增加;随着轴向载荷的不断增大,盒维数先增大后减小,在盒维数最大值处锚固结构失效。