The Secret Toxic Legacies of Chemical Warfare: Agent Blue Use during the 2nd Indochina and Vietnam Wars in Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam (1961 to 1971)

During the 2nd Indochina War which started in 1959, the United States Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), Air America, and the Air Force waged a secret and unconventional air war in Laos from Udorn Air Force base located in Thailand and across the Mekong River from Vientiane, Laos. Starting in 1961, four years before the official start of the American-Vietnam War, Agent Blue, the arsenic-based herbicide used to kill rice and other food crops, was used extensively in Laos, Vietnam and to a lesser extent in Cambodia. During the secret 2nd Indochina War and the Vietnam Civil War the public knew little about the use of Agent Blue. After the official start of the American-Vietnam War in 1965, the United States media news reports, about chemical warfare were dominated by the story of Agent Orange and its devastating impacts. The public knew very little about the previous use of Agent Blue in both wars. The first known media pick up of the Agent Blue (arsenic based) and Agent Pink, Agent Green, and Agent Purple (all three contain 2, 4, 5-T and unknown amounts of dioxin TCDD) was in May of 1964. Jim G. Lucas, a Scripps-Howard staff reporter submitted an article that was published as an editorial in Washington Post on May 26, 1964. The next news reference to this chemical weapon was a Letter to the Editor published in the New York Times titled “Agent Blue” in Vietnam by Arthur H. Westing in (1971). The use of herbicides, including Agent Blue in Laos during the 2nd Indochina War, was kept a secret until 1982, when a draft of Buckingham’s study of Operation Ranch Hand was made public. Much about the U.S. war effort in Laos is still classified. In a 2014 issue of the VVA Veteran magazine, Loana Hoylman published an article on “Today’s Blue Arsenic in the Environment”. The first refereed journal article on this topic, “The Fate of Agent Blue, the Arsenic-Based Herbicide, Used in South Vietnam during the Vietnam War” was published in 2020 in the Open Journal of Soil Science by Kenneth R. Olson and Larry Cihacek. In 2021 the Asia Times (print) and VietnamVeteranNews (radio podcast) picked up the Agent Blue story. During the early 2020s, Olson published six additional refereed journal articles on Agent Blue, cacodylic acid, and arsenic. The primary objective is to determine why no major news organization in the United States, including the New York Times and Washington Post, have never investigated Agent Blue use during the 2nd Indochina and Vietnam wars? Why did the use of Agent Blue story, used to destroy Laotian and South Vietnamese civilian food (rice) sources and production sites, received only very limited coverage by US print media news organizations during the last 64 years?

Review and Analysis: Evaluation of the Impacts and Consequences of Using Agricultural Herbicides as Military Chemical Weapons in Second Indochina War

The legacy of the human misery caused by the application of the herbicides including Agent Purple and Agent Orange contaminated with unknown amounts of dioxin TCDD and Agent Blue, the arsenic-based herbicide, sprayed over the jungles, rice fields, and hamlets of Vietnam is still haunting us today. Why did this happen? Could it have been prevented? Was it necessary United States military strategy? Was it an intentional decision to inflict this blight on the enemy soldiers and the Vietnamese, Cambodian, and Laotian civilians, to poison their land and cause generations of harm? Alternatively, was it an unpreventable accident in the march of military history? What patterns in the U.S. government’s thought process could be identified as the cause, which led to the decision to use these herbicides as tactical chemical weapons? If the introduction of herbicide (chemical) weapons had not been made, would the outcome of the Vietnam War and the Secret Wars in Laos and Cambodia have been any different? The objective of this treatise is to outline the role of world events and backgrounds and the role of the leaders, U.S. military, CIA, USDA, U.S. State Department, the U.S. President appointed Ambassadors to Vietnam and Laos, chemical companies, and President Diệm’s Republic of Vietnam (RVN) government and military. Their collective advice led to the decision to use herbicides as military and environmental chemical weapons in the Second Indochina War. Were the National interests achieved by U.S. military strategy in the RVN using herbicide weapons worth the long-term environmental and human health consequences in Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos? Did it impact the outcome of the Second Indochina War?

Rebellion in Northern Manchuria During the Third Revolutionary War in China and Its Causes

The frequent rebellions in Northern Manchuria during the Third Revolutionary War occurred in the special context of the struggle between the Kuomintang(KMT)and the Communist Party of China(CPC)for Northeast China after the victory of the Anti-Japanese War.The rebellion reached its peak during the KMTs attack on Northeast China,followed by a second wave of rebellion after the defeat in the Defensive Battle of Siping.It tended to disappear after the downfall of the Jiang Pengfei Group.In addition to the blind recruitment of the CPC in traditional narratives,the instigation of the KMT,the traditional mutiny of the old army,the limitations of the early work of the Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army,the early activities of the KMT,and the regional conflicts between the local and foreign forces are also important reasons for the concentration of rebellions.

Impact of Land Requisition for Military Training during World War II on Farming and the South Downs Landscape,England

The impact of WorldWar II on the physical landscape of British towns and cities as a result of airborne assault is well known.However,less newsworthy but arguably no less significant is the impact of the war on agriculture and the countryside,especially in South-East England.This paper outlines the building of an historical Geographical Information System(GIS)from different data sources including the National Farm Survey(NFS),Luftwaffe and Royal Air Force(RAF)aerial photographs and basic topographic mapping for the South Downs in East and West Sussex.It explores the impact and legacy ofWorldWar II on the agricultural landscape of this area through both the‘plough-up’campaigns aimed at increasing agricultural production and the occupation of farm land for military training purposes.Farms surrounding an area where extensive tracts of land were taken over for military training and defensive purposes on the Downs close to Brighton and the county town of Lewes in East Sussex are the focus of attention illuminating the beneficial and disruptive impacts of the government’s drive to increase food output by bringing land into more productive use by means of a‘plough-up’campaign and using formerly agricultural land for military training.These changes contributed to the transformation of the region into“an arable monoculture”and the virtual disappearance of traditional sheep rearing in the post-war decades.

America's Difficulties after the War and the International Political Consequences of the War

The U. S. A will succeed militarily in the Iraq war. However, it is far away from the true meaning of victory in war defined by distinguished strategic thinker B. H. Liddell Hart, even inaccessible. Using Hart’s own word, the true victory in war is to attain a better state of peace and improve the quality of life for the survivors after the war is over. What await America after the basic success in Iraq are grave military and political difficulties. Moreover, there may be bigger economic and financial troubles as well.

Ecuador and World War I： One Nation＇s Experience on the Periphery of the Great War and During its Aftermath, 1914-1924

In the horrific conflict of 1914-1918 known as World War I, Latin American nations were peripheral players but they were not immune from its effects. This essay reviews the conflict＇s impact on Ecuador--a Latin American nation that after declaring neutrality in 1914, broke relations with Germany on December 7, 1917 but refrained from any involvement in the actual fighting. Following a brief review of the existing historiography of this period, the study examines Ecuador＇s geographic, political, economic and social situation in 1914; its involvement in the war as a neutral between 1914 and April 6, 1917; and the developments that occurred after its decision to break relations with Germany in December 1917 until the armistice on November 11, 1918. Finally it suggests how the consequences of Ecuador＇s stance in the months after the restoration of peace contributed to the end of the Liberal Era in 1924.

Bilateral and Regional Strategic and Security Relationship Between China and the US after the Cold War

Sino-US relations are complex relations with multi-aspects between the two bigcountries in the world. It has three levels: the global level, the Asia-Pacificlevel and the bilateral level. The critical relationship between China and the US isembodied in the regional and bilateral levels that are more specific and essential.Beyond the field of economy and trade, their relationship is mainly embodied in thestrategic and security field.

War,Disillusionment and Courage——A Brief Analysis of In Another Country

This short essay gives a general introduction and analysis of one of Hemingway's short stories-In Another Country.By depicting the physically injured soldiers in a hospital in Milan because of the war,the story shows the damaging psychological and physical effects of World War I,which will never been recovered.It also examines people's disillusionment of old faiths and views of the world,and their courage to face the tragedy and reality.

The Relationship Between the Communist Party of China and the Japanese Communist Party During the War of Resistance Against Japanese Aggression

It is important to clarify the historical facts and summarize the characteristics of the communication and cooperation between the CPC and the JCP during the War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression, as it holds historical and contemporary relevance. The research findings indicate that the Comintern played a crucial role as the key intermediary in facilitating the establishment of connections between the CPC and the JCP and in driving the deepening of their relationship. During their exchanges, both parties adhered to a flexible and multi-layered friendship based on the unified values of patriotism and internationalism. Their efforts played a significant role in the establishment of an international anti-fascist front in the East.

Britain's Role in the Early Days of Cold War and the Extentof Avoidability of "War

This article probes the role that Great Britain played in stabilizing European economy and politics and its role in curbing the influence of communism during the first period of the Cold War by providing accurate statistics and hard believable facts. Apart from this, this article also discusses the extent of possibility of keeping peace during the Cold War. Through Vietnam War and Korean War and some other conflicts between two ideological rival blocs, the author safely concludes that peace is conditioned, if the power of balance is broken, the Cold War can be a hot one.

Mental Health Consequences among Sudanese Due to the Armed Conflicts and Civil Unrest of 2023: One Year Later

Aim: To investigate depression, anxiety, PTSD, and insomnia levels among Sudanese citizens after a year has passed since the start of Armed Forces conflict in Sudan. Methods: An online survey was distributed. It is composed of five parts, covering the following areas: 1) sociodemographic data;2) depression assessment;3) generalized anxiety disorder assessment;4) post-traumatic stress disorder assessment;and 5) insomnia assessment. Statistical Package for Social Sciences version 27 was used for data analysis;frequency and percentage were used to describe the qualitative variables. Spearman’s correlation analysis and Chi-square test were used for correlation and association analysis;a P-value equal to or less than 0.05 was considered statistically significant. Results: The study included 283 participants, primarily female (76.0%), with a mean age of 35.26 ± 6.96 years. The majority of participants were married (50.5%) and had a university level of education (50.2%). At the start of the war, 70.3% of participants were inside the war zones, and at the time of data collection, 73.5% were outside Sudan. The length of stay in the war zone ranged from 1 to 300 days, with a mean of 48.59 ± 70.284 days. Additionally, 63.3% of participants stated that they did not receive any form of mental health intervention, and the remaining did not provide an answer. There was a high prevalence of moderate-severe depression (50.5%), moderate anxiety (35.3%), PTSD (56.5%), and sub-threshold insomnia (53.4%) among the participants. Correlation analyses revealed associations between demographic factors such as sex, age, marital status, and education and mental health issues. Notably, female participants showed a higher prevalence of PTSD (53.0%) compared to male participants (67.6%). Conclusions: There is a substantial impact of war-related trauma on mental health, revealing a high prevalence of moderate-severe depression, moderate anxiety, PTSD, and sub-threshold insomnia among the participants. This emphasizes the importance of tailored interventions and support systems to address the unique needs of individuals affected by war trauma.

Current status of medical support in military operations other than war in domestic and overseas

Objective: To investigate the current status of medical support in military operations other than war (MOOTW) in domestic and overseas. Methods: This paper mainly adopts the descriptive, comparative and induction research methods. The current status of medical support in MOOTW in China, America, Russia, Israel, Canada, had been studied through some official papers, and series of professional books by analysis the precise date in various kinds of emergency event. Results: The contrast shows that there is still a quite huge development in medical support in MOOTW, no matter in China, or in other countries. Conclusion: In order to strengthen the forces, besides building professional rescue teams, it is necessary to take a regular revise of plans, according to missions` needs.

Burns and frostbite in the Red Army during World War Ⅱ

The start of World War Ⅱ(WWⅡ) led to the deployment of combat troops in several continents. Destruction and many casualties among both the military and civilians became an inevitable consequence. A large amount of people injured were in need of life-saving treatment and a speedy return to duty. Intensive studies of the specific issues of diagnosis and treatment of thermal injury were conducted in the Soviet Union before the war. The first special units for patients with burn injuries were created, and the first specialists received their first clinical experience. The contributions of famous Soviet scientists in the development of the treatment of burns and frostbite in WWⅡ are studied in this article. The structure of thermal injuries among military personnel and the results of their treatment are shown. Treatment, classification and quantity frostbite in the structure of sanitary losses during the WWⅡ are studied in this article.

Enduring association between irritable bowel syndrome and war trauma during the Nicaragua civil war period:A population-based study

BACKGROUND Psychosocial and physical trauma are known risk factors for irritable bowel syndrome(IBS),including in war veterans,whereas war exposure in civilians is unclear.Nicaragua experienced two wars,1970-1990:The Sandinistas Revolution(1970s)and The Contra War(1980s).Our aim was to investigate the role of exposure to war trauma in the subsequent development of IBS in the context of an established health surveillance system(11000 households).AIM To investigate in a civilian population the relationship between exposure to war trauma and events and the subsequent development of IBS in the context of an established public health and demographic surveillance system in western Nicaragua.METHODS We conducted a nested population-based,cross-sectional study focused on functional gastrointestinal disorders based on Rome II criteria.1617 adults were randomly selected.The Spanish Rome II Modular Questionnaire and Harvard Trauma Questionnaire were validated in Nicaragua.War exposure was assessed with 10 measures of direct and indirect war trauma and post-war effects.Multiple exposures were defined by≥3 measures.RESULTS The prevalence of IBS was 15.2%[Female(F)17.1%,Male(M)12.0%],war exposure 19.3%(F 9.3%,M 36.7%),and post-traumatic stress disorder(PTSD)5.6%(F 6.4%,M 4.3%).Significant associations with IBS in the civilian population were observed(adjusted by gender,age,socioeconomic status,education):physical and psychological abuse[adjusted odds ratio(aOR):2.25;95%confidence interval:1.1-4.5],witnessed execution(aOR:2.4;1.1-5.2),family member death(aOR:2.2;1.2-4.2),and multiple exposures(aOR:2.7;1.4-5.1).PTSD was independently associated with IBS(aOR:2.6;1.2-5.7).CONCLUSION An enduring association was observed in the Nicaragua civilian population between specific civil war-related events and subsequent IBS.Civilian populations in regions with extended armed conflict may warrant provider education and targeted interventions for patients.

An Analysis of Specific Categories of Birth Defects and Developmental Disabilities for Children of Participants of the Air Force Health Study

Background: The Air Force Health Study collected reproductive outcomes for live-born children of male Air Force veterans of the Vietnam War. Methods: Dioxin values for participants were obtained from blood samples. Analyses were conducted of occurrence of 16 specific categories of birth defects and developmental disabilities. Children were categorized as conceived before and after the start of participants’ Vietnam War service. Children conceived before the start of Vietnam War service were treated as being conceived when their fathers had unquantifiable dioxin values. Children conceived after the start of Vietnam War service for participants with missing dioxin values were excluded from primary analyses, but were used to assess the impact of their exclusion on conclusions. Correlation between values for specific categories for multiple children fathered by the same participant was accounted for. The dose-response relationship was treated as a step function increasing for dioxin values larger than adaptively identified individual thresholds changing with the specific category. Results: For 15 of 16 specific categories, the probability of occurrence increased substantially for a sufficiently high dioxin level above identified thresholds. Exclusion of children due to missing dioxin likely did not affect these results. Conclusions: Results supported the conclusion of substantial adverse effects on a wide variety of specific categories of birth defects and developmental disabilities due to sufficiently high exposures to dioxin, a toxic contaminant of Agent Orange used for herbicide spraying in the Vietnam War. Results may hold more generally, but might also have been affected by a variety of limitations.

European Urban Cultural Heritage Management after War

The management of cultural urban heritage monuments in European cities after war is a matter that presents some interesting variations over time.It usually underlines a dual political manifestation,either as an attempt to reverse history,through a form of cultural"recovery"of monuments and encouraging a pre-war statement,either as an attempt to perpetuate the dark memory of the"atrocity"of the enemies through the preservation of the monument in form of a ruin,or in some cases as a kind of"purism"by removing cultural symbols and monuments attributed to war opponents in a process of symbolic reconstruction to support a new political narrative.Cultural properties,as described by UNESCO since 1954,represent a valuable urban asset that despite any political intentions are at serious threat during war times.Almost eight decades since World War II,the war in Ukraine raises forgotten issues for the European Region.The historic centre of the city of Lviv and the Saint Sophia Cathedral of Kyiv,among others,are world heritage sites,registered in the list of UNESCO,all of which various international organisations have expressed serious concerns about their state of survival.This paper aims to demonstrate from past examples the importance of safekeeping-built heritage,from any side of conflict parts,and in this respect highlighting the significance of culture over politics.Analysing thus monuments in recent European history that had suffered serious damage during military operations,as well as demonstrating various means of management that followed,in relation to the political expediency from which these options were dictated,considered in their historical context,while,at the same time,cross-referencing similar practices applied in Ukraine.

The Six-Day War and Its Impact on Arab and Israeli Conflict

This article focuses on the Israel-Palestine conflict from the Six Day War perspective. The authors try to make a clarification of the Six Day War impact on Israel and its role in the regional and international scenes on the one hand, and the war＇s effect on the Arab states, including the Palestinian resistance against Israel, on the other hand. The war changed Israel＇s status from being a small state to becoming one of the most powerful regional powers. While the image of most Arab states was damaged and they lost their confidence among their peoples. The Six Day War changed the balance of power in the Middle East and intensified the Cold War following the end of the war. A climate of war was created and the individuals of both bearings, Israel and Arab countries, prepared for a new war.

Regard History as a Mirror and Create a New World of Peace,Development and Cooperation—In Commemoration of the 60^(th) Anniversary of the Victory of the Chinese People's War of Resistance Against Japanese Aggression and the World's Anti-Fascist War

The year 2005 marks the 60th anniversary of the victory of the Chinese People’s War of Resistance Against Japanese Aggression and the world’s anti-fascist war. China and many other countries have held all kinds of activities to commemorate this event that has most deeply impacted human history. The Second World War, the crudest war

The Relationship between Dachuan Baijie Muddymen Dance and“Da Xia”and“Da Wu”

Dachuan Baijie Muddymen Dance is a kind of dance with local characteristics.From its dance movements and prop usage,it should be related to ancient Ba people’s war dance,as well as to recorded ancient dances such as“Da Xia”and“Da Wu”.

The Need for International Cooperation between Israel and Other Middle East Nations to Protect the Jordan River Landscape

The Jordan River, also referred to as Nahr Al Sharieat in Arabic, is a long river in the Middle East that flows from north to south through the Sea of Galilee to the Dead Sea. The Jordan River is bordered by the Golan Heights and the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan in the east and by Israel and the Palestinian West Bank (Judea and Samaria) in the west. Soil tunnels, including those in the Jordan River watershed and on the Israel, Syria, and Lebanon borders, have a long history of use for warfare, as invasion pathways, smuggling, and storage of rockets, missiles and ordnance and are causes of serious political tension between the countries. Soil tunnel construction and destruction often has adverse environmental and human health impacts in the Jordan River landscape. Due to agricultural wastes, the discharge of untreated sewage, and diversion of saline springs into the river water there has been serious deterioration in the water quality in the lower courses of the Jordan River. The primary objective of this research is to encourage the development of a multi-country clean-up, mitigation, and protection plan for the Jordan River.