Chemokine Receptors CCR1, CCR3, CCR7 and Chemokines CX3CL1 and CCL5 are Significantly Up-Regulated and Very Reliable for Acute Rejection Diagnosis of Kidney Transplants

Background: The allo-immune response following organ transplantation constitutes one of the main determinants concerning both short- and long- term outcomes in renal graft recipients. Chemokines and their receptors play a diversified and important role, either homeostatic or inflammatory and direct different immune-competent cell types to the allograft. While deeply studied in the last two decades, controversy persists as a result of chemokines’ pleiotropic actions. We report our analysis of CCR1, CCR3, CCR7, CCL5 and CX3CL1 expression or synthesis by graft-infiltrating cells in human kidney transplants (KTx). At the same time, we tested their robustness in diagnosing acute rejection. Methods: Fine-needle aspiration biopsies (Fnab) were performed either on days 7 or 14 post-transplantation among stable KTx and on the day of acute rejection (AR) diagnosis. Fnab cytopreparations were studied by the enzymatic avidin-biotin complex staining for CCR1, CCR3, CCR7 and CX3CL1. From another subgroup of cases, Fnab samples were cultured for 48 hours and the supernatants were analysed for CCL5 by ELISA. Results: The group of AR cases showed a significantly up-regulated expression of CCR1, CCR3, CCR7 and CX3CL1 and a significantly higher synthesis of CCL5. The positive predictive values were respectively 92%, 97%, 85%, 76% and 78% and negative predictive values were by the same order, 100%, 73%, 100%, 98% and 83%. Conclusions: Our study permits us to advance that CCR1 and CCR3 play a significant and non-redundant role in acute rejection, and it is the first report of CCR3 association with rejection, probably related to CCL5. The presence inside the graft of significant up-regulation for CCR7 surmises that part of antigen presentation may be performed there without being restricted to secondary lymphoid sites. Our results with CX3CL1 confirm other reports.

Neuronal chemokines:new insights into neuronal communication after injury

Classically,chemokines were described as small proteins driving leukocyte migration.Nonetheless,more and more studies are showing the great variety of cell functions and tissues in which they participate,including neural cells.During the last years,research has highlighted the importance of chemokines in the nervous system,governing a wide range of processes (MesquidaVeny et al.,2021).This is evidenced for example by the crucial role played by CXCL12 during cortical development,or the homeostatic role of neuronal CX3CL1,preventing microglial activation.We are now certain that many chemokines and their receptors are widely expressed in neurons,and growing evidence has shown them as fundamental players in direct neuronal communication,both during homeostasis and after insult.

CXC family of chemokines as prognostic or predictive biomarkers and possible drug targets in colorectal cancer

Colorectal cancer(CRC) is the third most common cancer in men and the second most common cancer in women,worldwide. In the early stages of the disease, biomarkers predicting early relapse would improve survival rates.In metastatic patients, the use of predictive biomarkers could potentially result in more personalized treatments and better outcomes. The CXC family of chemokines(CXCL1 to 17) are small(8 to 10 kDa) secreted proteins that attract neutrophils and lymphocytes. These chemokines signal through chemokine receptors(CXCR) 1 to 8.Several studies have reported that these chemokines and receptors have a role in either the promotion or inhibition of cancer, depending on their capacity to suppress or stimulate the action of the immune system, respectively.In general terms, activation of the CXCR1/CXCR2 pathway or the CXCR4/CXCR7 pathway is associated with tumor aggressiveness and poor prognosis; therefore,the specific inhibition of these receptors is a possible therapeutic strategy. On the other hand, the lesser known CXCR3 and CXCR5 axes are generally considered to be tumor suppressor signaling pathways, and their stimulation has been suggested as a way to fight cancer.These pathways have been studied in tumor tissues(using immunohistochemistry or measuring mRNA levels)or serum [using enzyme-linked immuno sorbent assay(ELISA) or multiplexing techniques], among other sample types. Common variants in genes encoding for the CXC chemokines have also been investigated as possible biomarkers of the disease. This review summarizes themost recent findings on the role of CXC chemokines and their receptors in CRC and discusses their possible value as prognostic or predictive biomarkers as well as the possibility of targeting them as a therapeutic strategy.

Role of chemokines and their receptors in viral persistence and liver damage during chronic hepatitis C virus infection

Chemokines produced in the liver during hepatitis C virus(HCV) infection induce migration of activated T cells from the periphery to infected parenchyma.The milieu of chemokines secreted by infected hepatocytes is predominantly associated with the T-helper cell/Tc1 T cell(Th1/Tc1) response.These chemokines consist of CCL3(macrophage inflammatory protein-1α;MIP-1α),CCL4(MIP-1β),CCL5(regulated on activation normal T cell expressed and secreted;RANTES),CXCL10(interferon-γ-inducible protein-10;IP-10),CXCL11(interferon-inducible T-cell α chemoattractant;I-TAC),and CXCL9(monokine induced by interferon γ;Mig) and they recruit T cells expressing either CCR5 or CXCR3 chemokine receptors.Intrahepatic and peripheral blood levels of these chemokines are increased during chronic hepatitis C.The interaction between chemokines and their receptors is essential in recruiting HCV-specific T cells to control the infection.When the adaptive immune response fails in this task,non-specific T cells without the capacity to control the infection are also recruited to the liver,and these are ultimately responsible for the persistent hepatic damage.The modulation of chemokine receptor expression and chemokine secretion could be a viral escape mechanism to avoid specific T cell migration to the liver during the early phase of infection,and to maintain liver viability during the chronic phase,by impairing non-specific T cell migration.Some chemokines and their receptors correlate with liver damage,and CXCL10(IP-10) and CXCR3 levels have shown a clinical utility as predictors of treatment response outcome.The regulation of chemokines and their receptors could be a future potential therapeutic target to decrease liver inflammation and to increase specific T cell migration to the infected liver.

Chemokines and their receptors play important roles in the development of hepatocellular carcinoma

The chemokine system consists of four different subclasses with over 50 chemokines and 19 receptors. Their functions in the immune system have been well elucidated and research during the last decades unveils their new roles in hepatocellular carcinoma(HCC). The chemokines and their receptors in the microenvironment influence the development of HCCby several aspects including:inflammation,effects on immune cells,angiogenesis,and direct effects on HCC cells. Regarding these aspects,pre-clinical research by targeting the chemokine system has yielded promising data,and these findings bring us new clues in the chemokine-based therapies for HCC.

Chemokines and hepatocellular carcinoma

Chemokines play a paramount role in tumor progres-sion. In hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) progression, chemokines and their receptors play an intricate role. Currently, chemokines and their receptors such as the CXCL12-CXCR4 axis, CX3CL1-CX3CR1 axis and the CCL20-CCR6 axis have received much research attention. Although a large number of studies show that these axes are strongly associated with HCC, the exact mechanism by which these axes promote the growth and progression of HCC remains unknown. In this paper, several chemokines and their receptor interactions in HCC progression, growth and metastasis and immune response to HCC are reviewed.

Inflammatory microenvironment and expression of chemokines in hepatocellular carcinoma

AIM:To study the inflammatory microenvironment and expression of chemokines in hepatocellular carcinoma(HCC) in nude mice.METHODS:CBRH-7919 HCC cells were injected into the subcutaneous region of nude mice.Beginning two weeks after the challenge,tumor growth was measured every week for six weeks.The stromal microenvironment and inflammatory cell infiltration was assessed by immunohistochemistry in paired tumor and adjacent peritumoral samples,and macrophage phenotype was assessed using double-stain immunohistochemistry incorporating expression of an intracellular enzyme.A chemokine PCR array,comprised of 98 genes,was used to screen differential gene expressions,which were validated by Western blotting.Additionally,expression of identified chemokines was knocked-down by RNA interference,and the effect on tumor growth was assessed.RESULTS:Inflammatory cell infiltrates are a key feature of adjacent peritumoral tissues with increased macrophage,neutrophil,and T cell(specifically helperand activated subsets)infiltration.Macrophages within adjacent peritumoral tissues express inducible nitric oxide synthase,suggestive of a proinflammatory phenotype.Fifty-one genes were identified in tumor tissues during the progression period,including 50that were overexpressed(including CXCL1,CXCL2 and CXCL3)and three that were underexpressed(CXCR1,Ifg and Actb).RNA interference of CXCL1 in the CBRH-7919 cells decreased the growth of tumors in nude mice and inhibited expression of CXCL2,CXCL3and interleukin-1βprotein.CONCLUSION:These findings suggest that CXCL1plays a critical role in tumor growth and may serve as a potential molecular target for use in HCC therapy.

Induction of CXC chemokines in human mesenchymal stem cells by stimulation with secreted frizzled-related proteins through non-canonical Wnt signaling

AIM: To investigate the effect of secreted frizzledrelated proteins(s FRPs) on CXC chemokine expression in human mesenchymal stem cells(h MSCs).METHODS: CXC chemokines such as CXCL5 and CXCL8 are induced in h MSCs during differentiation with osteogenic differentiation medium(OGM) and may be involved in angiogenic stimulation during bone repair. h MSCs were treated with conditioned medium(CM) from L-cells expressing non-canonical Wnt5 a protein, or with control CM from wild type L-cells, or directly with s FRPs for up to 10 d in culture. m RNA expression levels of both CXCL5 and CXCL8 were quantitated by real-time reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction and secreted protein levels of these proteins determined by ELISA. Dose-(0-500 ng/m L) and time-response curves were generated for treatment with s FRP1. Signal transduction pathways were explored by western blot analysis with pan- or phosphorylation-specific antibodies, through use of specific pathway inhibitors, and through use of si RNAs targeting specific frizzled receptors(Fzd)-2 and 5 or thereceptor tyrosine kinase-like orphan receptor-2(Ro R2) prior to treatment with s FRPs. RESULTS: CM from L-cells expressing Wnt5 a, a noncanonical Wnt, stimulated an increase in CXCL5 m RNA expression and protein secretion in comparison to control L-cell CM. s FRP1, which should inhibit both canonical and non-canonical Wnt signaling, surprisingly enhanced the expression of CXCL5 at 7 and 10 d. Dickkopf1, an inhibitor of canonical Wnt signaling prevented the s FRPstimulated induction of CXCL5 and actually inhibited basal levels of CXCL5 expression at 7 but not at 10 d post treatment. In addition, all four s FRPs isoforms induced CXCL8 expression in a dose- and time-dependent manner with maximum expression at 7 d with treatment at 150 ng/m L. The largest increases in CXCL5 expression were seen from stimulation with s FRP1 or s FRP2. Analysis of mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling pathways in the presence of OGM showed s FRP1-induced phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase(ERK)(p44/42) maximally at 5 min after s FRP1 addition, earlier than that found in OGM alone. Addition of a phospholipase C(PLC) inhibitor also prevented s FRPstimulated increases in CXCL8 m RNA. si RNA technology targeting the Fzd-2 and 5 and the non-canonical Fzd co-receptor Ro R2 also significantly decreased s FRP1/2-stimulated CXCL8 m RNA levels.CONCLUSION: CXC chemokine expression in h MSCs is controlled in part by s FRPs signaling through noncanonical Wnt involving Fzd2/5 and the ERK and PLC pathways.

Expression of Pref-1 and Related Chemokines during the Development of Rat Mesenteric Lymph Nodes

Objective The aim of this study was to investigate the ability of Pref-1~＋ adipocyte progenitor cells to mobilize into mesenteric lymph nodes（MLNs） and the dynamic expression of related chemokines during the development of rat MLNs. Methods Immunohistochemical analyses were used to detect the expression of Pref-1 and related chemokines. Transmission electron microscopy（TEM） was used to observe the changes in ultrastructure of MLNs. Results Cells containing lipid droplets were found in all rat MLNs at embryonic day（E） 18.5, 2 and 6 weeks（w） after birth, and they were similar to fibroblastic reticular cells（FRCs） or follicular dendritic cells（FDCs） under TEM. Pref-1~＋ adipocyte progenitor cells were found in all MLNs. The expression level of Pref-1 was significantly increased at 2 w after birth and decreased at 6 w after birth. The tendency of Cxcl12 expression was consistent with that of Pref-1 and was positively correlated with the expression of Pref-1（P 〈 0.01; r = 0.897）. At E18.5, Cxcl13, and Ccr7 were significantly expressed in the MLN anlage, but the expression level of Ccl21 was low. The expression level of Cxcl13, Ccr7, and Ccl21 in MLN were significantly increased at 2 w after birth（P 〈 0.05）, while the expression of Ccr7 and Ccl21 were significantly decreased at 6 w after birth（P 〈 0.05）. Conclusion Adipocyte progenitor cells are involved in the rat MLNs development through differentiation into FRC and FDC. The expression of the relevant chemokines during the development of MLNs is dynamic and may be related to the maintenance of lymph nodes self-balance state.

Effects of Astragalus injection on chemokines, renal function and humoral immunity in patients with pulmonary tuberculosis

Objective:To investigate the effects of Astragalus Injection on inflammatory factors, chemokines, renal function and humoral immunity in patients with pulmonary tuberculosis. Methods:80 patients with pulmonary tuberculosis who were treated in the department of respiratory medicine in our hospital from October 2015 to October 2017 were randomly divided into control group and observation group, 40 cases in each group. Patients in the control group were given levofloxacin treatment;and patients in the observation group were given astragalus injection combined with levofloxacin treatment. Before and after treatment, procalcitonin (PCT), interferon-γ (INF-γ), monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1), macrophage inflammatory protein-1α (MIP-1 ), blood urea nitrogen (BUN), serum creatinine (SCr), uric acid (UA) and immunoglobulin (IgA, IgM, IgG) levels were measured and compared between the patients in the two groups.Result: After treatment, the levels of PCT, INF-γ, MCP-1 and MIP-1 in serum of the patients in the two groups were significantly decreased, and the levels of IgA, IgM and IgG were significantly increased. The changes of the PCT, INF-γ, MCP-1, MIP-1 , IgA, IgM and IgG of patients in the observation group were significantly stronger than those in the control group (P<0.05). After treatment, the levels of BUN, SCr and UA in serum of patients in the two groups increased significantly. The serum levels of above indexes of patients in the observation group were significantly lower than those in the control group (P<0.05).Conclusion: Astragalus injection can significantly relieve the inflammatory state of patients with pulmonary tuberculosis, reduce the level of chemokines, enhance the renal function and immune function of patients. It has good clinical efficacy.

Expression of mRNA of chemokines and chemokine receptors and cytokines amount in the blood of healthy volunteers

Background: Chemokines are small proteins that activate immune system in normal and pathological conditions. The induction of chemotaxis is a well-established role of chemokines. Moreover chemokines are important mediators of angiogenesis, implantation of fetus, and maturation of immune cells. In human body many types of cells express chemokines and cytokines at level of gene and protein. In blood cells chemokine and chemokine receptors mRNA level is a one of crucial points of chemokine system condition. The aim of the study was to evaluate the relationship between plasma concentration of cyto- kines and chemokines/chemokine receptors mRNA level in blood of healthy volunteers. Results: Gene expression of eotaxin, eotaxin-2, IL-8, MIP-1α, MIP- 1β, RANTES, CCR1, CCR3, CCR5, CXCR1, and CXCR2 was measured in peripheral blood cells, as well as the concentration of IL-1β, IL-1ra, IL-2, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-7, IL-8, IL-9, IL-10, IL-12 (p70), IL-13, IL-15, IL-17, eotaxin, FGF-2, G-CSF, GM-CSF, IFN-γ, IP-10, MCP-1, MIP-1α, MIP-1β, PDGF-BB, RANTES, TNF-α, and VEGF was evaluated in the plasma of 19 healthy individuals. We studied rela- tionship between mRNA levels of chemokines/recaptors and cytokine concentration in blood of healthy volunteers. Conclusion: These data are allowed to assess chemokines impact in the cytokine regulation of healthy subjects. These results indicate that chemokines and their receptors is diverse and redundant system of immune reactivity in response to internal and external challenges.

Chemokines and their receptors:important mediators to be aware of in neuroregenerative approaches for spinal cord injury

Curative therapy for spinal cord injury （SCI） remains elusive, however identifying options for tailored treatment strategies is in full swing. Like in the brain there are distinct regions in the adult spinal cord that harbor neural progenitor cells （NPCs） （Horner et al., 2000）. This offers the possibility of recruiting these cells in reparative approaches to support endogenous spinal cord regenerative capacities. Hereby, one challenge among many others is to overcome the already re- strictive microenvironment of potential endogenous NPCs, which is considerably akered by ongoing secondary lesion cascades by the initial lesion. Research addressing this aspect identified a plethora of mediators that hinder or promote neuroregeneration where at inflammatory mediators are known to play an essential role.

Mycosis fungoides and Sézary syndrome: Role of chemokines and chemokine receptors

Mycosis fungoides is the most common form of cutaneous T-cell lymphoma(CTCL), and is characterized by a clonal expansion of malignant CD4+ T lymphocytes with skinhoming properties. Clinically and pathologically, mycosis fungoides can be categorized into patch, plaque and tumor stages. The clinical course of mycosis fungoides is usually chronic and indolent, but a proportion of patients may develop progressive disease with peripheral blood, lymph node and visceral organ involvement. Sézarysyndrome is an aggressive leukemic form of CTCL characterized by a clonal population of malignant T cells in the peripheral blood. Various forms of skin-directed and systemic treatments are available for mycosis fungoides and Sézary syndrome. However, current treatments are generally not curative, and can only control the disease. Currently, the etiology and pathogenesis of mycosis fungoides and Sézary syndrome are not well defined. Proposed mechanisms include chronic antigenic stimulation by infectious agents, expression of specific adhesion molecules, altered cytokine production, mutations of oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes, and avoidance of apoptosis. In recent years, a number of chemokine receptors and their corresponding chemokine ligands have been found to contribute to the migration and survival of lymphoma cells in mycosis fungoides and Sézary syndrome, including CC chemokine receptor 4(CCR4), CCR10, C-X-C chemokine receptor type 4(CXCR4), CCR7, CCR3 and CXCR3. Since chemokines and chemokine receptors have been found to play important roles in the pathophysiology of mycosis fungoides and Sézary syndrome, they may be potentially useful targets for the development of new treatments for these diseases in the future.

Role of cytokines and chemokines in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) includes a variety of histological conditions (ranging from liver steatosis and steatohepatitis, to fibrosis and hepatocarcinoma) that are characterized by an increased fat content within the liver. The accumulation/deposition of fat within the liver is essential for diagnosis of NAFLD and might be associated with alterations in the hepatic and systemic inflammatory state. Although it is still unclear if each histological entity represents a different disease or rather steps of the same disease, inflammatory processes in NAFLD might influence its pathophysiology and prognosis. In particular, non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (the most inflamed condition in NAFLDs, which more frequently evolves towards chronic and serious liver diseases) is characterized by a marked activation of inflammatory cells and the upregulation of several soluble inflammatory mediators. Among several mediators, cytokines and chemokines might play a pivotal active role in NAFLD and are considered as potential therapeutic targets. In this review, we will update evidence from both basic research and clinical studies on the potential role of cytokines and chemokines in the pathophysiology of NAFLD.

CXC chemokines and chemokine receptors in gastric cancer: From basic findings towards therapeutic targeting

Gastric cancer is the fourth most common cancer,and the second-highest cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide.Despite extensive research to identify novel diagnostic and therapeutic agents,patients with advanced gastric cancer suffer from a poor quality of life and poor prognosis,and treatment is dependent mainly on conventional cytotoxic chemotherapy.To improve the quality of life and survival of gastric cancer patients,a better understanding of the underlying molecular pathologies,and their application towards the development of novel targeted therapies,is urgently needed.Chemokines are a group of small proteins associated with cytoskeletal rearrangements,the directional migration of several cell types during development and physiology,and the host immune response via interactions with G-protein coupled receptors.There is also growing evidence to suggest that chemokines not only play a role in the immune system,but are also involved in the development and progression of tumors.In gastric cancer,CXC chemokines and chemokine receptors regulate the trafficking of cells in and out of the tumor microenvironment.CXC chemokines and their receptors can also directly influence tumorigenesis by modulating tumor transformation,survival,growth,invasion and metastasis,as well as indirectly by regulating angiogenesis,and tumor-leukocyte interactions.In this review,we will focus on the roles of CXC chemokines and their receptors in the development,progression,and metastasis of gastric tumors,and discuss their therapeutic potential for gastric cancer.

Chemokines play complex roles in cerebral ischemia

Ischemic stroke(IS) is a disease caused by deficiency of blood and oxygen in focal or complete brain,followed by inflammation cascade and other pathological reactions,which finally lead to irreversible damage to the cerebrum.For the inflammation is a key progress at the initiation of ischemia and poststroke,and chemokines work as vital cytokines in inflammation,we focus the roles of chemokines in IS.Studies have shown cerebral ischemia is associated with marked induction of both CXC and CC chemokines which resulting in extensive leukocyte infiltration in the ischemic brain,and neutrophil infiltration may increase cerebral edema inducing injury in the ischemic area.In addition,chemokines also shows other functions such as promote neuroblast migration,hematogenous cell recruitment and functional brain repair.Thus,a similar chemokine ligand/chemokine receptor pair can mediate both beneficial and detrimental effects depending on the window of observation and pathophysiological conditions.This manuscript reviews the studies about chemokine-mediated effects in cerebral ischemia/reperfusion and discusses the potential significance of these interactions in injury and repair of ischemic tissues.We also refer drug development based on the chemokines and clinical applications using chemokines as diagnostic or prognostic biomarkers in ischemic stroke.

Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) is essential for dendritic cell activation and chemotactic responsiveness to chemokines

Indoleamine 2, 3-dioxygenase (IDO) is a rate-limiting enzyme for the tryptophan catabolism. In human and murine cells, IDO inhibits antigen-specific T cell proliferation in vitro and suppresses T cell responses to fetal alloantigens during murine pregnancy. In mice, IDO expression is an inducible feature of specific subsets of dendritic cells (DCs), and is important for T cell regulatory properties. However, the effect of IDO and tryptophan deprivation on DC func- tions remains unknown. We report here that when tryptophan utilization was prevented by a pharmacological inhibitor of IDO, 1-methyl tryptophan (1MT), DC activation induced by pathogenic stimulus lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or inflam- matory cytokine TNF-α was inhibited both phenotypically and functionally. Such an effect was less remarkable when DC was stimulated by a physiological stimulus, CD40 ligand. Tryptophan deprivation during DC activation also regu- lated the expression of CCR5 and CXCR4, as well as DC responsiveness to chemokines. These results suggest that tryptophan usage in the microenvironment is essential for DC maturation, and may also play a role in the regulation of DC migratory behaviors.

Chemokines,chemokine receptors and the gastrointestinal system

The biological properties of tumor cells are known to be regulated by a multitude of cytokines and growth factors,which include epidermal growth factor receptor agonists and members of the transforming growth factor β family.Furthermore,the recent explosion of research in the field of chemokine function as mediators of tumor progression has led to the possibility that these small,immunomodulatory proteins also play key roles in carcinogenesis and may,therefore,be potential targets for novel therapeutic approaches.In this review,we will summarize recently reported findings in chemokine biology with a focus on the gastrointestinal tract.

Involvement of CXCR3-associated Chemokines in MHV-3 Induced Fulminant Hepatic Failure

The role of chemokines in murine hepatitis virus strain 3 (MHV-3) induced fulminant hepatic failure (FHF) is not well defined. In this study, we investigated the role of the CXC chemokine receptor 3 (CXCR3)- associated chemokine [monokine induced by IFN-gamma (Mig/CXCL9) and interferon-gamma-inducible protein 10 (IP-10/CXCL10)] in the recruitment of intrahepatic lymphocytes and subsequent fulminant hepatic failure induced by MHV-3. Balb/cJ mice (6-8 weeks, female) were intraperitioneally injected with 100 PFU MHV-3.The proportions and numbers of T cells and NK cells as well as the expression of CXCR3 on T cells and NK cells in the liver, spleen and blood were analyzed by flow cytometry. The hepatic mRNA level of the CXCR3-associated chemokines (CXCL9 and CXCL10) was detected by realtime PCR. A transwell migration assay was used to assess the chemotactic effect of MHV-3-infected hepatocytes on the splenic lymphocytes. Following MHV-3 infection, the number of hepatic NK cells and T cells and the frequencies of hepatic NK cells and T cells expressing CXCR3 increased markedly; however, in the spleen and peripheral blood, they both decreased significantly. Moreover, the hepatic mRNAs levels of CXCL9 and CXCL10 were significantly elevated post infection. The transwell migration assay demonstrated that MHV-3-infected hepatocytes have the capacity to attract and recruit the splenic NK cells and T cells, and CXCL10 plays a key role in lymphocyte mobilization from the spleen. These results suggest that the CXCR3- associated chemokines (CXCL9 and CXCL10) may play animportant role in the recruitment of intrahepatic lymphocytes and subsequent necroinflammation and hepatic failure in MHV-3 infection.

Effects of cytokines and chemokines on migration of mesenchymal stem cells following spinal cord injury

We investigated the effects of cytokines and chemokines and their associated signaling pathways on mesenchymal stem cell migration after spinal cord injury, to determine their roles in the curative effects of mesenchymal stem cells. This study reviewed the effects of tumor necrosis factor-α, vascular endothelial growth factor, hepatocyte growth factor, platelet-derived growth factor, basic fibroblast growth factor, insulin like growth factor-I, stromal cell-derived factor and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, 3 during mesenchymal stem cell migration to damaged sites, and analyzed the signal transduction pathways involved in their effects on mesenchymal stem cell migration. The results confirmed that phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/serine/threonine protein kinases and nuclear factor-KB play crucial roles in the migration of mesenchymal stem cells induced by cytokines and chemokines.