Chloride ion battery:A new emerged electrochemical system for next-generation energy storage

In the scope of developing new electrochemical concepts to build batteries with high energy density,chloride ion batteries(CIBs)have emerged as a candidate for the next generation of novel electrochemical energy storage technologies,which show the potential in matching or even surpassing the current lithium metal batteries in terms of energy density,dendrite-free safety,and elimination of the dependence on the strained lithium and cobalt resources.However,the development of CIBs is still at the initial stage with unsatisfactory performance and several challenges have hindered them from reaching commercialization.In this review,we examine the current advances of CIBs by considering the electrode material design to the electrolyte,thus outlining the new opportunities of aqueous CIBs especially combined with desalination,chloride redox battery,etc.With respect to the developing road of lithium ion and fluoride ion batteries,the possibility of using solid-state chloride ion conductors to replace liquid electrolytes is tentatively discussed.Going beyond,perspectives and clear suggestions are concluded by highlighting the major obstacles and by prescribing specific research topics to inspire more efforts for CIBs in large-scale energy storage applications.

Consolidation Mechanism of Chloride Ion in Soda Residue from Ammonia Soda Process Method

Soda residue-magnesium oxychloride cement is prepared with soda residue from ammonia soda process method,magnesium oxide and magnesium sulfate heptahydrate as main raw materials,and its consolidation mechanism of chloride ion is studied.The results show that the hydration products of soda residue-magnesium oxychloride cement are mainly 5-phase,gypsum and brucite,which exist in the matrix in needle rod shape,long plate shape and hexagonal plate shape,respectively.When the molar ratio of MgO/MgCl_(2) is 8:1,the concentration of MgSO_(4) is 29%,and the mass ratio of soda residue:magnesium oxide:magnesium sulfate heptahydrate is 45.8:36.4:17.8.The chloride ion consolidation effect of the sample is the best,and the chloride ion consolidation content of the 7 d sample is about 93%.The chloride ion consolidation content of the 28 d sample is about 96%.

Role of Chloride Ion and Dissolved Oxygen in Electrochemical Corrosion of AA5083-H321 Aluminum-Magnesium Alloy in NaCl Solutions under Flow Conditions

Flow-induced corrosion consists electrochemical and mechanical components. The present paper has to assessed the role of chloride ion and dissolved oxygen in the electrochemical component of flow induced corrosion for AA5083-H321 aluminum-magnesium alloy which is extensively used in the construction of high-speed boats, submarines, hovercrafts, and desalination systems, in NaCI solutions. Electrochemical tests were carried out at flow velocities of 0, ：2, 5, 7 and 10 m/s, in aerated and deaerated NaCI solutions with different sodium chloride concentrations. The results showed that the high rate of oxygen reduction under hydrodynamic conditions causes an increase in the density of pits on the surface. The increase of chloride ions concentration under flow conditions accelerates the rate of anodic reactions, but have no influence on the cathodic reactions. Thus, in the current work, it was found that under flow conditions, due to the elimination of corrosion products inside the pits, corrosion resistance of the alloy is increased.

Effect of Fly Ash on Frost-Resistance and Chloride Ions Diffusion Properties of Marine Concrete

It is necessary to pay more attention to the durability of concrete undergoing freeze-thaw cycles and seawater attack simultaneously.Investigated are the effects of water-binder ratio,fly ash（FA）contents and air-entraining agent on resistance to frost and chloride diffusion of marine concrete blended with FA in natural seawater.The results show that fly ash does not improve the frost resistance of concrete but can improve its resistance to chloride diffusion by addition of less than 30%.The resistance to frost and chloride diffusion of FA concrete can be improved with the decrease of water-binder ratio,and FA may improve both of them simultaneously only being mixed with air-entraining agent.A ratio（named as R）of the frost-resisting durability factor to chloride diffusion coefficient can be used to evaluate the durability of marine concrete.Scanning electron microscope（SEM）analyses are consistent with the evaluations by the value of R.

Influence of chloride ion concentration on immersion corrosion behaviour of plasma sprayed alumina coatings on AZ31B magnesium alloy

Corrosion attack of aluminium and magnesium based alloys is a major issue worldwide.The corrosion degradation of an uncoated and atmospheric plasma sprayed alumina(APS)coatings on AZ31B magnesium alloy was investigated using immersion corrosion test in NaCl solutions of different chloride ion concentrations viz.,0.01 M,0.2 M,0.6 M and 1 M.The corroded surface was characterized by an optical microscope and X-ray diffraction.The results showed that the corrosion deterioration of uncoated and coated samples were significantly influenced by chloride ion concentration.The uncoated magnesium and alumina coatings were found to offer a superior corrosion resistance in lower chloride ion concentration NaCl solutions(0.01 M and 0.2 M NaCl).On the other hand the coatings and Mg alloy substrate were found to be highly susceptible to localized damage,and could not provide an effective corrosion protection in solutions containing higher chloride concentrations(0.6 M and 1 M).It was found that the corrosion resistance of the ceramic coatings and base metal gets deteriorated with the increase in the chloride concentrations.

The Influence of Mineral Functional Materials on Chloride Ion Penetration of Concrete

The mechanism of chloride ion penetration in high performance concrete was analy zed. The experimental results indicate that there are two important reasons that influence the anti-chloride penetration of high performance concrete. One is the function effect of mineral functional material, so that it increases conc rete's capability to resist chloride ion penetration. The other is combined acti on of mineral functional material's original capability of binding the chloride ion (physical adsorption) and physicochemical adsorption after hydration.

Effect of temperature, chloride ions and sulfide ions on the electrochemical properties of 316L stainless steel in simulated cooling water

The influence of temperature, chloride ions and sulfide ions on the anticorrosion behavior of 316L stainless steel in simulated cooling water was studied by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy and anodic polarization curves. The results show that the film resistance increases with the solution temperature but decreases after 8 days’ immersion, which indicates that the film formed at higher temperature has inferior anticorrosion behavior; Chloride ions and sulfide ions have remarkable effects on the electrochemical property of 316L stainless steel in simulated cooling water and the pitting potential declines with the concentration of chloride ions; the passivation current has no obvious effect; the rise of the concentration of sulfide ions obviously increases the passivation current, but the pitting potential changes little, which indicates that the two types of ions may have different effects on destructing passive film of stainless steel. The critical concentration of chloride ions causing anodic potential curve’s change in simulated cooling water is 250 mg/L for 316 L stainless. The effect of sulfide ions on the corrosion resistance behavior of stainless steel is increasing the passivation current density Ip. The addition of 6 mg/L sulfide ions to the solution makes Ip of 316 L increase by 0.5 times.

Cellular Automata-based Chloride Ion Diffusion Simulation of Concrete Bridges under Multi-factor Coupling Actions

In order to accurately simulate the diffusion of chloride ion in the existing concrete bridge and acquire the precise chloride ion concentration at given time, a cellular automata （CA）-based model is proposed. The process of chloride ion diffusion is analyzed by the CA-based method and a nonlinear solution of the Fick＇s second law is obtained. Considering the impact of various factors such as stress states, temporal and spatial variability of diffusion parameters and water-cement ratio on the process of chloride ion diffusion, the model of chloride ion diffusion under multi-factor coupling actions is presented. A chloride ion penetrating experiment reported in the literature is used to prove the effectiveness and reasonability of the present method, and a T-type beam is taken as an illustrative example to analyze the process of chloride ion diffusion in practical application. The results indicate that CA-based method can simulate the diffusion of chloride ion in the concrete structures with acceptable precision.

Chloride Ion Transmission Model under the Drying-wetting Cycles and Its Solution

The chloride ion transmission model considering diffusion and convection was established respectively for different zones in concrete by analyzing chloride ion transmission mechanism under the dryingwetting cycles. The finite difference method was adopted to solve the model. The equation of chloride ion transmission model in the convection and diffusion zone of concrete was discreted by the group explicit scheme with right single point （GER method） and the equation in diffusion zone was discreted by FTCS difference scheme. According to relative humidity characteristics in concrete under drying-wetting cycles, the seepage velocity equation was formulated based on Kelvin Equation and Darcy＇s Law. The time-variant equations of chloride ion concentration of concrete surface and the boundary surface of the convection and diffusion zone were established. Based on the software MATLAB the numerical calculation was carried out by using the model and basic material parameters from the experiments. The calculation of chloride ion concentration distribution in concrete is in good agreement with the drying-wetting cycles experiments. It can be shown that the chloride ion transmission model and the seepage velocity equation are reasonable and practical. Studies have shown that the chloride ion transmission in concrete considering convection and diffusion under the drying-wetting cycles is the better correlation with the actual situation than that only considering the diffusion.

Stable isotopes and chloride ion of precipitation events in the northeastern Tibetan Plateau, China

Stable isotopes and chloride ion of precipitation are ideal environmental tracers to explain and reveal the formation and evolution mechanisms of water bodies. It is crucial to investigate the stable isotopes and chloride in precipitation events in the northeastern part of the Tibetan Plateau(NETP) due to the limitation of available data. This study sampled each event of precipitation during the period from July 2018 to June 2019 and the monthly dustfall in the NETP to investigate the temporal changes of stable isotopes and chloride in precipitation, and to reveal the moisture source of precipitation over the NETP using a back trajectory model. Results showed that the δ^(2)H values of precipitation ranged from-183.51‰ to 17.75‰, and the δ^(18)O values ranged from-25.18‰ to 0.48‰. The slope of the Local Meteoric Water Line was slightly lower than 8 due to the effect of belowcloud secondary evaporation on the precipitation process. Most d-excess values were higher than 10‰ because moisture recycled from the continent and Qinghai Lake surface mixed with precipitation. The chloride in precipitation accounted for 86.5% of the annual total deposition mass of chloride(1329.64 mg/m2), indicating that precipitation was the main source of chloride in the NETP. The temperature and amount effects of stable isotope in the precipitation were obvious in the NETP. The precipitation was predominantly derived from the Westerly Circulation from September through May and the East Asian Monsoon from June to August, with precipitation amounts of 246.5 mm and 178.0 mm, respectively, indicating that the precipitation over the NETP brought by the Westerly Circulation was more than that brought by the East Asian Monsoon. The air mass over the NETP transited in late May and early September, and a slight change in transition period would mainly be related to the intensity of the East Asian Monsoon, which is strongly influenced by El Ni?o-Southern Oscillation. These results provide not only baseline data for hydrological and climatological studies of the NETP but also valuable insights into the hydrological process in the inland arid area of Asia.

M-T Scheme for Predicting Effective Diffusion Coefficient of Chloride Ions in Cement-based Materials

To investigate the transport characteristics of chloride ions in cement-based materials, the Mori-Tanaka (M-T) prediction scheme of the effective diffusion coefficient in composites containing single-phase and multi-phase inclusions is systematically deduced based on the theory of composite mechanics and porous medium. The volume fraction, morphology and distribution of aggregates, as well as the interfacial transition zone (ITZ) are fully taken into consideration in this proposed model. The results show that the algorithm of M-T prediction scheme with high accuracy is relatively simple.

THE SYNERGISTIC INHIBITION STUDIES OF SEVERAL AMINES AND CHLORIDE ION ON IRON IN THE ACIDIC PERCHLORIDE SOLUTIONS

The effect of chloride ion on the corrosion inhibition of iron caused by dencylamine(DA), dipentylamine(DDA) and dodecylamine(DPA) has been investigated by measuring the inhibitory coefficients for the anodic and cathodic processes at corrosion potential. It has been shown that the major synergistic inhibition effects between amines and chloride ions occur in the cathodic process, very weak in the anodic process. The anodic inhibition mechanism follows the competing adsorptive model, while the cathodic inhibition mechanism follows the cooperative adsorptive model.

Water Absorption and Chloride Ion Penetrability of Concrete Damaged by Freeze-thawing and Loading

In order to investigate water and chloride ion transport in damaged concrete, three types of concrete were prepared, freeze-thawing（F-T） cycling and compressive loading were adopted to induce damage to concrete. Ultrasonic pulse velocity technique was used for evaluating the damage degree of concrete, and the defects of damaged concrete were also detected by X-CT. Water absorption and chloride ion penetrability were used for describing the transport properties of damaged concrete. Effects of damage degree on the water absorption rate and chloride ion penetrability were investigated in detail and the relationships were also established. The results show that the water absorption of concrete makes various responses to damage degree due to the difference of concrete type and damage method. For same concrete with similar damage degree, the water absorption rate of F-T damaged concrete is usually larger than that of concrete damaged by loading. The chloride ion penetrability of damaged concrete increases linearly with increasing damage degree, which is more sensitive to damage degree if the original penetrability of sound concrete is higher.

Effects of Chloride Ion on the Texture of Copper and Cu-ZrB_(2) Coatings Electrodeposited from Copper Nitrate Solution in Different Plating Modes

For the first time, the texture of copper and Cu-ZrB2 coatings produced from copper nitrate solution was studied. Chloride ion shows different effects on the deposit texture under direct current （DC） and pulse current （PC） conditions. Copper deposits are strongly 〈220〉 textured in DC plating with and without chloride ion. While in PC condition, the predominant texture shifts from 〈220〉 to 〈200〉 as the chloride ion concentration exceeds 20 mg/l. The addition of ZrB2 particles enhances the cathodic polarization of copper deposition, which improves the growth of （111） plane. However, this improvement can be eliminated by further addition of chloride ion.

Influence of Mineral Admixtures on Chloride Ion Permeation through Concrete

Through the rapid chloride ion penetration test,the influence of fly ash and slag on chloride ion permeability and microstructure of concrete was studied.The results indicate that the addition of fly ash increases concrete permeability at 28 days.With the slag content of 20% and 30%,the permeability of concrete at 28 days is reduced.The positive effect of slag is due to its relatively stronger pozzolanic reactive ability resulted in the most probable pore size and total porosity decreased.When the slag content reaches 40%,the concrete permeability showes the tendency ofincrease.

The Combined Impact of Magnetic Field and Chloride Ion Concentration on Corrosion Behavior of Al-Mg Alloys

The impact of magnetic field on the corrosion behavior of Al-Mg-xR_(E)/Fe alloys in NaCl solutions with concentrations of 1.5wt%,3.5wt%,and 5.5wt%were studied by microstructure observation,immersion test,and electrochemical test.The combined impacts of magnetic field and chloride ion concentration on the corrosion behavior of Al-Mg alloys with various electrode potential phases were discussed.The results indicate that Al-3.0Mg-xR_(E)/Fe alloys corrode faster and have a higher pitting corrosion potential in the NaCl solution with a higher concentration.In addition,a magnetic field can lower the pitting sensitivity and corrosion rate of Al-3.0Mg and Al-3.0Mg-0.2R_(E)/Fe alloys in NaCl solution with different concentrations.However,at a higher concentration of NaCl solution,the magnetic field has a weaker inhibiting effect on corrosion rate and pitting sensitivity.In NaCl solutions with concentrations of 1.5wt%and 3.5wt%,the corrosion rate and pitting sensitivity of Al-3.0Mg-1.0R_(E)/Fe alloys can be reduced by a magnetic field.However,in NaCl solution with the concentration of 5.5wt%,the corrosion rate of the alloys is increased by a magnetic field.

Convolutional Neural Network-Based Regression for Predicting the Chloride Ion Diffusion Coefficient of Concrete

The durability performance of reinforced concrete(RC)building structures is significantly affected by the corrosion of the steel reinforcement due to chloride penetration,thus,the chloride ion diffusion coefficient should be investigated through experiments or theoretical equations to assess the durability of an RC structure.This study aims to predict the chloride ion diffusion coefficient of concrete,a heterogeneous material.A convolutional neural network(CNN)-based regression model that learns the condition of the concrete surface through deep learning,is developed to efficiently obtain the chloride ion diffusion coefficient.For the model implementation to determine the chloride ion diffusion coefficient,concrete mixes with w/c ratios of 0.33,0.40,0.46,0.50,0.62,and 0.68,are cured for 28 days;subsequently,the surface image data of the specimens are collected.Finally,the proposed model predicts the chloride ion diffusion coefficient using the concrete surface image data and exhibits an error of approximately 1.5E−12 m^(2)/s.The results suggest the applicability of proposed model to the field of facility maintenance for estimating the chloride ion diffusion coefficient of concrete using images.

Effects of chloride ion concentration and pH values on the corrosion behavio of Cr12Ni3Co12Mo4W ultra-high-strength martensitic stainless steel

The effects of Cl ion concentration and pH values on the corrosion behavior of Cr12Ni3Co12Mo4W ultra-high-strength martensitic stainless steel（UHSMSS） were investigated by a series of electrochemical tests combined with observations by stereology microscopy and scanning electron microscopy. A critical Cl- ion concentration was found to exist（approximately 0.1wt%）, above which pitting occurred. The pitting potential decreased with increasing Cl- ion concentration. A UHSMSS specimen tempered at 600°C exhibited a better pitting corrosion resistance than the one tempered at 400°C. The corrosion current density and passive current density of the UHSMSS tempered at 600°C decreased with increasing pH values of the corrosion solution. The pits developed a shallower dish geometry with increasing polarization potential. A lacy cover on the pits of the UHSMSS tempered at 400°C accelerated pitting, whereas corrosion products deposited in the pits of the UHSMSS tempered at 600°C hindered pitting.

Tetrahydro-dibenzo[a,d]Annulene-5,11-Dihydrazone and Magnesium Oxide Used to Control the Corrosion of Aluminium in Chloride Ions Environment

Chloride ions interact with aluminium in marine atmosphere to form corrosion cell.Due to this corrosion reaction occurs on their surface,aluminium is oxidized into Al3+.The corrosion reaction accelerates deterioration in metal and it produces galvanic,pitting,stress,crevice,intergranular corrosion.Chloride ions decrease internal and external strength of aluminium metal.It is a very important metal so used in different appliances for e.g.road,water,air transports,housing,railways and other fields.Nanocoating and electrospray techniques used to check the corrosion of aluminium metal.For nanocoating and electrospray materials applied tetrahydro-dibenzo[a,d][7]annulene-5,11-dihydrazone and MgO.Both materials formed composite barrier and developed a passive surface for Cl-ions.This barrier reduced the corrosion rate of aluminium.Nozzle spray and chemical vapour deposition technique used for coating process.The corrosion rate of metal was determined by gravimetric method.Corrosion potential and current density were calculated by potentiostat.The composite barrier formation was confirmed by activation energy,heat of adsorption,free energy,enthalpy and entropy.These thermal parameters were obtained by Arrhenius equation,Langmuir isotherm and Transition state equation.The adsorption of tetrahydro-dibenzo[a,d][7]annulene-5,11-dihydrazone and MgO electrospray on aluminium surface was depicted by Langmuir,Frundlich and Temkin isotherm.The results of surface coverage area and coating efficiency were noticed that both materials were mitigated the corrosion rate of aluminium in chloride ions environment.

Development of a Rapid Test Bar for Quantitative Detection of Chloride Ions in Fresh Concrete

Due to the shortage of natural raw materials,many practitioners proposed to make concrete from desalinated sea sand.To reduce the risk of abuse of uncleaned sea sand,we proposed a new rapid test bar to detect chloride ions in fresh concrete quantitatively.The test bars were prepared by mixing silver chromate with cotton fiber.By virtue of the high liquid-absorbent capacity of cotton fiber,the chloride-contained liquid in fresh concrete will rapidly enter into the test bar and react with the silver chromate to finally show a certain coloring height,which corresponds to the actual chloride content.In order to optimize the preparation process,the color rendering,testing time and stability of test rods under different mixing ratios and conditions were investigated.The relationship between color height and chloride content was established,and an auxiliary card is prepared for user-friendly calculation of chloride content.The results showed that the best performance of the test bar was obtained under the following conditions:mass concentration of silver chromate 5.0g/L,soaking time 1 min,drying temperature 50℃and content of discolored silica gel 0.5g/root.