Health Risk Assessment of Employees Exposed to Chlorination By-products of Recreational Water in Large Amusement Parks in Shanghai

Objective Chlorination is often used to disinfect recreational water in large amusement parks;however,the health hazards of chlorination disinfection by-products(DBPs)to occupational populations are unknown.This study aimed to assess the exposure status of chlorinated DBPs in recreational water and the health risks to employees of large amusement parks.Methods Exposure parameters of employees of three large amusement parks in Shanghai were investigated using a questionnaire.Seven typical chlorinated DBPs in recreational water and spray samples were quantified by gas chromatography,and the health risks to amusement park employees exposed to chlorinated DBPs were evaluated according to the WHO's risk assessment framework.Results Trichloroacetic acid,dibromochloromethane,bromodichloromethane,and dichloroacetic acid were detected predominantly in recreational water.The carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risks of the five DBPs did not exceed the risk thresholds.In addition,the carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risks of mixed exposure to DBPs were within the acceptable risk limits.Conclusion Typical DBPs were widely detected in recreational water collected from three large amusement parks in Shanghai;however,the health risks of DBPs and their mixtures were within acceptable limits.

Mechanism and Kinetics of Polychlorination of Long Chain n-Alkanes by Photo-Initiation

Based on the mechanism analysis of the polychlorination of long chain n-alkanes by photo-initiation,a kinetic model was developed. The model parameters were obtained by the method of non-linear fitting. The influences of luminous intensity and concentration of molecular chlorine on the rate of polychlorination are demonstrated by the model. If the luminous intensity is adequate, the polychlorination rate of n-alkane is only controlled by the flow rate of molecular chlorine in a wide range of temperature, and the changes of temperature and luminous intensity have less effect on the reaction rate. In addition, the predictions of chlorine content of polychlorinated n-alkane calculated with the model agree very well with experimental results.

Extraction of lithium from lepidolite using chlorination roasting-water leaching process

Chlorination roasting followed by water leaching process was used to extract lithium from lepidolite.The microstructure of the lepidolite and roasted materials were characterized by X-ray diffraction（XRD）.Various parameters including chlorination roasting temperature,time,type and amount of chlorinating agents were optimized.The conditional experiments indicate that the best mass ratio of lepidolite to NaCl to CaCl2 is 1：0.6：0.4 during the roasting process.The extraction of lithium reaches peak value of 92.86% at 880 °C,potassium,rubidium,and cesium 88.49%,93.60% and 93.01%,respectively.The XRD result indicates that the major phases of the product after roasting lepidolite with mixture of chlorinating agents（CaCl2 and NaCl） are SiO2,CaF2,KCl,CaSiO3,CaAl2Si2O8,NaCl and NaAlSi3O8.

Behavior of titanium dioxide in alumina carbothermic reduction-chlorination process in vacuum

Behaviors of TiO2 in the alumina carbothermic reduction and chlorination process in vacuum at different temperatures were investigated experimentally by means of XRD,SEM and EDS.In the preparation of materials,the molar ratio of Al2O3 to C was 1：4,and 10% TiO2 and excess AlCl3 were added.The results show that TiC is produced by C and TiO2 after TiO2 transforms from anatase into rutile gradually.In the temperature range of 1 763？1 783 K,the compounds of Ti and Al are not found in slags and condensate.The purity of aluminum reaches 98.35%,and TiO2 does not participate in alumina carbothermic reduction process and chlorination process in vacuum.

Bromate ion formation in dark chlorination and ultraviolet/chlorination processes for bromide-containing water

Bormate （BrO3^-） is a carcinogenic chemical produced in ozonation or chlorination of bromide-containing water. Although its formation in seawater with or without sunlight has been previously investigated, the formation of bromate in dilute solutions, particularly raw water for water treatment plant, is unknown. In this article, the results of bench scale tests to measure the formation rates of bromate formation in dilute solutions, including de-ionized water and raw water from Yangtze River, were presented in dark chlorination and ultraviolet （UV）/chlorination processes. And the effects of initial pH, initial concentration of NaOCl, and UV light intensity on bromate formation in UV/chlorination of the diluted solutions were investigated. Detectable bromate was formed in dark chlorination of the two water samples with a relatively slow production rate. Under routine disinfecting conditions, the amount of formed bromate is not likely to exceed the national standards （10 μg/L）. UV irradiation enhanced the decay of free chlorine, and, simultaneously, 6.6%-32% of Br^- was oxidized to BrO3^-. And the formation of bromate exhibited three stages： rapid stage, slow stage and plateau. Under the experimental conditions （pH = 4.41-11.07, CCl2= 1.23-4.50 mg/L）, low pH and high chlorine concentration favored the generation of bromate. High light intensity promoted the production rate of bromate, but decreased its total generation amount due to acceleration of chlorine decomposition.

Tomato Yield and Quality and Emitter Clogging as Affected by Chlorination Schemes of Drip Irrigation Systems Applying Sewage Effluent

Chlorination has been recognized as an efficient and economically favorable method for treating clogging in drip emitters caused by biological growth during sewage application. Further important criteria for determining an optimal chlorination scheme are the different responses of crops to the chloride added into the soil through chlorination. During two seasons in 2008 and 2009, field experiments were conducted in a solar-heated greenhouse with drip irrigation systems applying secondary sewage effluent to tomato plants to investigate the influences of chlorine injection intervals and levels on plant growth, yield, fruit quality, and emitter clogging. Injection intervals ranging from 2 to 8 wk and injection concentrations ranging 2-50 mg L-1 of free chlorine residual at the end of the laterals were used. For the 2008 experiments, the yield from the treatments of sewage application with chlorination was 7.5% lower than the yield from the treatment of sewage application without chlorination, while the yields for the treatments with and without chlorination were similar for the 2009 experiments. The statistical tests indicated that neither the chlorine injection intervals and concentrations nor the interactions between the two significantly influenced plant height, leaf area, or tomato yield for both years. The qualities of the fruit in response to chlorination were parameter-dependent. Chlorination did not significantly influence the quality of ascorbic acid, soluble sugar, or soluble acids, but the interaction between the chlorine injection interval and the chlorine concentration significantly influenced the levels of soluble solids. It was also confirmed that chlorination was an effective method for reducing biological clogging. These results suggested that chlorination is safe for a crop that has a moderate sensitivity to chlorine, like tomato, and can maintain a high level of performance in drip irrigation systems applying sewage effluent.

Utilization of gold-bearing and iron-rich pyrite cinder via a chlorination–volatilization process

The chlorination-volatilization process has been adopted to make full use of gold-bearing and iron-rich pyrite cinder. However, problems of low recovery rate, pulverization of pellets, and ring formation have been encountered during the industrialization of this process. The effects of various parameters on the volatilization rates of valuable metals and on the compressive strength of roasted pellets were investigated in this paper. The parameters include the CaCl_2 dosage, heating temperature, and holding time. The results show that heating temperature is the most important parameter for the recovery of target metals. More CaCl_2 was needed for the recovery of zinc than for the recovery of gold, silver, and lead. CaCl_2 started to react with sulfides/SO_2/SiO_2 at temperatures below the melting point of CaCl_2 to generate Cl_2/HCl. Gaseous CaCl_2 was formed at higher temperatures and could react with any of the components. The compressive strength of roasted CaCl_2-bearing pellets first decreased slowly with increasing temperature at temperatures lower than 873 K, which could result in the pulverization of pellets during heating. Their compressive strength increased dramatically with increasing temperature at temperatures greater than 1273 K. Certain quantities of CaCl_2 and Fe(Ⅱ) could improve the compressive strength of the roasted pellets; however, the addition of excessive CaCl_2 decreased the compressive strength of pellets.

Extraction of metals from complex sulfide nickel concentrates by low-temperature chlorination roasting and water leaching

The recovery of valuable metals from complex sulfide concentrates was investigated via chlorination roasting followed by water leaching. A reaction process is proposed on the basis of previous studies and the results of our preliminary experiments. During the process, various process parameters were studied, including the roasting temperature, the addition of NH4Cl, the roasting time, the leaching time, and the liquid-to-solid ratio. The roasted products and leach residues were characterized by X-ray diffraction and vibrational spectroscopy. Under the optimum condition, 95% of Ni, 98% of Cu, and 88% of Co were recovered. In addition, the removal of iron was studied in the water leaching stage. The results demonstrate that this process provides an effective approach for extracting multiple metals from complex concentrates or ores. © 2017, University of Science and Technology Beijing and Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg.

Recovering germanium from coal ash by chlorination with ammonium chloride

A new process of enriching germanium from coal ash was developed. The processinvolves in mixing the coal ash and ammonium chloride and then roasting the mixture to producegermanium chloride that is then absorbed by dilute hydrochloric acid and hydrolyzed to germaniumoxide. The germanium recovery reached to 80.2% at the optimum condition: mass ratio of NH_4Cl/coalash is 0.15, roasting temperature 400℃ and roasting time 90 min.

Chlorination strategy on polymer donors toward efficient solar conversions

Bulk heterojunction(BHJ)polymer solar cells(PSCs)are promising candidates for next-generation solar cells.Benefitting from the persistent efforts in material design and synthesis,systematic device engineering and fundamental understanding of the device physics,the power conversion efficiency(PCE)of single PSC has been pushed to surpass 15%,and that of the tandem PSCs is over 17%.Recently,chlorination has drawn much interest and the chlorinated PSCs have been frequently reported in donor-acceptor(D-A)type conjugated polymers.This review summarizes the recent progress of the chlorinated strategy for highly efficient photovoltaic applications.We firstly discuss the chlorination on the acceptor units in D-A type donor polymers,emphasizing the 4 widely used acceptor units with their improved PCE.secondly,the chlorination on the donor units will be discussed,mainly focusing on the chlorination of benzo[1,2-b:4,b]dithiophene(BDT)unit and 2,2-bithiophene unit.Remarkably,the PCE of the chlorinated BDT-based device has been improved to over 14%.Overall,this review discusses the structure-property correlations of these chlorinated polymers in photovoltaic study,which could further provide guidance on the chlorinated strategy and the molecular design for high-performance photovoltaic devices.

Researches on Formation of Haloacetic Acids in Chlorination of Drinking Water by a Novel Technique

Haloacetic acids(HAAs) are formed during the chlorination of drinking water,which are harmful to people′s health due to their carcinogenic and mutagenic effects. In the present study,a detection method combining methyl tert -butyl ether(MtBE) extraction with acid catalysis and gas chromatography coupled with an electron capture detector(GC/ECD) was developed for determining HAAs. The detection limit of this method(MDL) and relative standard deviation(RSD) were below 0.37 μg/L and 6.2%,respectively. The laboratory chlorination experiments were conducted with the purpose of investigating the influences of reaction time,temperature,UV_ 254 ,bromide and ammonia-nitrogen on the formation of HAAs. The results show that the formation amount of HAAs increases with increasing reaction time and temperature,respectively;and there exists a linear relationship between the formation of HAAs and UV_ 254 . The formation amount of HAAs decreases first and then increases as the bromide ion concentration increases,and adding NH +_4 is a possible way to control the formation of HAAs.

Kinetics of leaching refractory gold ores by ultrasonic-assisted electro-chlorination

The resources of refractory gold ores are abundant, and their effective treatment can bring good economic benefits. This paper investigated the kinetics of leaching gold from refractory gold ores by ultrasonic-assisted electro-chlorination. The effects of ultrasound time ratio, initial hydrochloric acid concentration and leaching temperature on the kinetic parameters were discussed. It is found that the leaching ratio goes up with all the factors increasing. The reaction kinetics is controlled by diffusion. When ultrasound improves the diffusion by reducing the diffusion resistance, the activation energy increases to 37.1 kJ/mol.

Simultaneous extraction of gold and zinc from refractory carbonaceous gold ore by chlorination roasting process

A novel process based on chlorination roasting was proposed to simultaneously recover gold and zinc from refractory carbonaceous gold ore by using NaCl as chlorination agent.The effects of roasting temperature,roasting time and NaCl content on the volatilization rates of gold and zinc were investigated.The reaction mechanism and the phase transition process were also analyzed by means of SEM,EDS and XRD.The results demonstrated that under the optimal conditions of NaCl content of 10%,roasting temperature of 800℃,roasting time of 4 h and gas flow rate of 1 L/min,the rates of gold and zinc were 92%and 92.56%,respectively.During low-temperature chlorination roasting stage,a certain content of sulfur was beneficial to the chlorination reactions of gold and zinc;and during high-temperature chlorination roasting stage,the crystal structure of vanadium-bearing mica was destroyed,and the vanadium-containing oxides were beneficial to the chlorinating volatilization of gold and zinc.Eventually,the chlorinated volatiles of gold and zinc could be recovered by alkaline solution.

Effects of Chlorination on Soil Chemical Properties and Nitrogen Uptake for Tomato Drip Irrigated with Secondary Sewage Effluent

Chlorination is usually an economical method for treating clogging in drip emitters during sewage application. Appropriate assessment of the responses of soil and crop is essential for determining an optimal chlorination scheme. During 2008 to 2009, field experiments were conducted in a solar-heated greenhouse for tomato drip irrigated with secondary sewage effluent, to investigate the influences of chlorine injection intervals and levels on soil chemical properties and nitrogen uptake. Injection intervals ranging from two to eight weeks and injection concentrations ranging from 2 to 50 mg L-1 were used. A salinity factor and a nutrient factor were extracted from the pool of the nine soil chemical constituents using factor analysis method. The results demonstrated that chlorination practices increased the residual Cl in the soil, resulting in an increased salinity factor, especially for the frequent chlorination at a high injection concentration. Chlorination weakened the accumulation of nutrients factor in the upper soil layer. Nitrogen uptake of the tomato plants also was inhibited by the increased salinity in the upper soil layer caused by high chlorination levels. In order to reduce the unfavorable effect on soil chemical properties and nitrogen uptake, chlorination scheme with concentrations of lower than 20 mg L-1 was recommended.

Behavior of silver and lead in selective chlorination leaching process of gold-antimony alloy

The behavior of silver and lead in the selective chlorination leaching process of gold-antimony alloy was analyzed in detail and appropriate recovery methods were developed.A reduction method by adding gold-antimony alloy powder was adopted to recover silver according to the thermodynamics calculation.The reducing rate of silver can exceed 99%at 80℃for 1.5 h when the dosage of gold-antimony alloy powder is 10%.The dissolution equilibrium curved surfaces of PbSO4 and PbCl2 under different conditions were drawn.The experimental results are well consistent with theoretical analysis that indicate lead may be precipitated in the form of lead chloride.The grade of gold in the residue can be further concentrated to 94.5%after being washed with hot water. These two methods have been applied successfully in the practice.

Synergetic Inactivation of Microorganisms in Drinking Water by Short-term Free Chlorination and Subsequent Monochloramination

Objective To introduce synergetic inactivation of microorganisms in drinking water by short-term free chlorination for less than 15 minutes followed by monochloramination. Methods Indicator microorganisms such as Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Candida albicans, and spores of Bacillus subtilis were used to assess the efficiency of sequential chlorination and free chlorination. Results The sequential chlorination was more efficient in inactivating these microorganisms than free chlorination, indicating that synergy was provided by free chlorine and monochloramine. Ammonia addition time, temperature and pH had influences on this synergy. Conclusion The possible mechanism of this synergy might involve three aspects： free chlorine causing sublethal injury to microorganisms and monochloramine further inactivating them; different ability of free chlorine and monochloramine to penetrate and inactivate microorganism congeries; and higher concentration of residual chlorine in sequential chlorination than in free chlorination.

Determination of haloacetic acids in hospital effuent after chlorination by ion chromatography

The ion chromatography combined solid phase extraction （SPE） method was developed for the analysis of low concentration haloacetic acids （HAAs）, a class of disinfection by-products formed from chlorination of hospital wastewater. The monitored HAAs included monochloroacetic acid, monobromoacetic acid, dichloroacetic acid, dibromoacetic acid and trichloroacetic acid. The method employed a sodium hydroxide eluent at a flow rate of 0.8 ml/min, electrolytically generated gradients, and suppressed conductivity detection. To analyze the HAAs in real hospital wastewater samples, C18 pretreatment cartridge was utilized to reduce samples＇ turbidity. Preconcentration with SPE and matrix elimination with treatment cartridges were investigated and found to be able to obtain acceptable detection limits. Linearity, repeatability and detection limits of the above method were evaluated. The detection limits of monobromoacetic acid and dibromoacetic acid were 2.61 μg/L and 1.30 μg/L, respectively, and the other three acids are ranging from 0.48 to 0.82μg/L under 25-fold preconcentration. When the above optimization procedure was applied to three hospital wastewater samples with different treatment processes in Tianjin, it was found that the dichloroacetic acid was the major compound, and the growth ratios of the HAAs after disinfection by sodium hypochlorite were 91.28%, 63.61% and 79.50%, respectively.

Combining chlorination and sulfuration strategies for high-performance all-small-molecule organic solar cells

Three small-molecule donors based on dithieno [2,3-d:2’,3 ’-d’]-benzo[1,2-b:4,5-b’] dithiophene(DTBDT)unit were designed and synthesized by side chain regulation with chlorinated or/and sulfurated substitutions(namely ZR1,ZR1-Cl,and ZR1-S-Cl respectively),along with a crystalline non-fullerene acceptor IDIC-4 Cl with a chlorinated 1,1-dicyanomethylene-3-indanone(IC) end group.Energy levels,molar extinction coefficients and crystallinities of three donor molecules can be effectively altered by combining chlorination and sulfuration strategies.Especially,the ZR1-S-Cl exhibited the best absorption ability,lowest higher occupied molecular orbital(HOMO) energy level and highest crystallinity among three donors,resulting in the corresponding all-small-molecule organic solar cells to produce a high power conversion efficiency(PCE) of 12.05% with IDIC-4 Cl as an acceptor.

Parameters affecting reaction rate and conversion of TiO_2 chlorination in a fluidized bed reactor: Experimental and modeling approach

Pilot scale chlorination of TiO2 was carried out with CO as reducing agent.The experimental analysis and modeling of chlorination process of TiO2 in the presence of CO and Cl2 in a semi-continuous fluidized bed reactor were aimed.Chlorination process was continuously monitored by measuring the amount of produced TiCl4 with time.The effects of different operating parameters including chlorination temperature,feedstock particle size and size distribution,amount of feedstock and Cl2 and CO flow rates on the conversion were systematically investigated.A gradual increase in chlorination temperature led to monotonous increase of conversion rate.Conversion decreased with increased particle size of feedstock.An increase in loaded feedstock led to a decrease in reaction conversion.A model was proposed to predict conversion,particle size distribution and mole fraction of components in gas phase as reaction proceeds.A good agreement between conversions predicted by the model and experimental data under various operating conditions was observed.

Thermodynamic analysis and process optimization of zinc and lead recovery from copper smelting slag with chlorination roasting

An efficient chlorination roasting process for recovering zinc(Zn)and lead(Pb)from copper smelting slag was proposed.Thermodynamic models were established,illustrating that Zn and Pb in copper smelting slag can be efficiently recycled during the chlorination roasting process.By decreasing the partial pressure of the gaseous products,chlorination was promoted.The Box−Behnken design was applied to assessing the interactive effects of the process variables and optimizing the chlorination roasting process.CaCl_(2) dosage and roasting temperature and time were used as variables,and metal recovery efficiencies were used as responses.When the roasting temperature was 1172℃ with a CaCl_(2) addition amount of 30 wt.%and a roasting time of 100 min,the predicted optimal recovery efficiencies of Zn and Pb were 87.85%and 99.26%,respectively,and the results were validated by experiments under the same conditions.The residual Zn-and Pb-containing phases in the roasting slags were ZnFe_(2)O_(4),Zn_(2)SiO_(4),and PbS.