Distribution characteristics of seamount cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts and the determination of the size of areas for exploration and exploitation

In 2001, the International Seabed Authority （ISBA） initiated the consideration relating to the Regulations for Prospecting and Exploration for Hydrothermal Polymetallic Sulphides and Cobalt-rich Ferromanganese Crusts in the Area at its 7th session. Since then, the consideration of the Regulations has been mainly focused on the size of areas to be allocated for exploration and exploitation of the crusts. This paper, based on the investigation data and the analysis of the distribution characteristics of the crusts, suggests a model for determining the size of areas for exploration and exploitation of the crusts, taking into account various factors such as production scale, crust thickness and grade, mineable area proportion, recovery efficiency, exploration venture, and so on. Through the modeling, the paper suggests that the exploration area （the area covered by each application for approval of a plan of work for exploration of cobalt-rich crusts） shall be 4 856 km2 and the exploitation area （the mine site area） shall be 1 214 km2, for 20 years of 1 million wet tonnes annual production.

The occurrence phases and enrichment mechanism of rare earth elements in cobalt-rich crusts from Marcus-Wake Seamounts

To explore the occurrence phases and enrichment mechanism of rare earth elements(REEs)in cobalt-rich crusts,this study analyzes the mineral composition and REE contents of the samples from Marcus-Wake Seamounts by XRD,ICP-OES and ICP-MS.The results show that,(1)the cobalt-rich crusts contain the major crystalline mineral(vernadite),the secondary minerals(quartz,plagioclase and carbonate fluorapatite),and a large amount of amorphous ferric oxyhydroxides(FeOOH).(2)The cobalt-rich crusts contains higher Mn(10.83%to 28.76%)and Fe(6.14%to 18.86%)relative to other elements,and are enriched in REEs,with total REE contents of 1563−3238μg/g and Ce contents of 790−1722μg/g.Rare earth element contents of the old crusts are higher than those of the new crusts.Moreover,the non-phosphatized crusts have positive Ce and negative Y anomalies,and yet the phosphatized crusts have positive Ce and positive Y anomalies,indicating that cobalt-rich crusts is hydrogenetic and REEs mainly come from seawater.(3)Analytical data also show that the occurrence phases of elements in cobalt-rich crusts are closely related to their mineral phases.In the non-phosphatized crusts,REEs are adsorbed by colloidal particles into the crusts(about 67%of REEs in the Fe oxide phase,and about 17%of REEs in the Mn oxide phase).In contrast,in the phosphatized crusts(affected by the phosphatization),REEs may combine with phosphate to form rare earth phosphate minerals,and about 64%of REEs are enriched in the residual phase containing carbonate fluorapatite,but correspondingly the influence of Fe and Mn oxide phases on REEs enrichment is greatly reduced.In addition,the oxidizing environment of seawater,high marine productivity,phosphatization,and slow growth rate can promote the REE enrichment.This study provides a reference for the metallogenesis of cobalt-rich crusts in the Pacific.

Calcareous Nannofossils and Molecular Fossils in Cobalt-rich Crusts and their Response to the P/E Global Event

A biostratigraphic study on calcareous nannofossils from the CM3D06 Co-rich ferromanganese crust from the Magellan seamounts in the northwestern Pacific enabled estimation of depositional age. The bio-imprinting of calcareous nannofossils and other fossil species suggests six age ranges for the nannofossils： late Cretaceous, late Paleocene, （early, middle, late） Eocene, middle Miocene, late Pliocene, and Pleistocene. Gas chromatography （GC） and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry （GC-MS） were used to test the Co-rich crusts, and a variety of molecular fossils were detected, such as chloroform bituminous ＂A＂ , n-alkane, isoprenoid and sterol. Peak carbon and molecular indices （such as C23-/C24＋, CPI, Pr/Ph, Pr/nC17, Ph/nCxs and j13C） indicate that the parent organic matter is dominated by marine phytoplankton and thallogen whereas there is little input of terrestrial organic matter. Researches on calcareous nannofossils, molecular fossils and molecular organic geochemistry data reveal that the Paleocene/Eocene （P/E） global event is recorded in the cobalt- rich crusts from the northwestern Pacific Ocean. A succession of biomes can be observed near the 85 mm boundary （about 55 Ma）, i.e., the disappearance of the late Cretaceous Watznaueria barnesae and Zigodicus spiralis, and Broisonia parka microbiotas above the P/E boundary, and the bloom of Coccolithus formosus, Discoaster multiradiatus, Discoaster mohleri and Discoaster sp. below the boundary. Typical parameters of molecular fossils, such as saturated hydrocarbon components and carbon-number maxima, Pr/Ph, Pr/C17, Ph/C18, distribution types of sterols, Ts/Tm ratios and bacterial hopane, also exhibit dramatic changes near the P/E boundary. These integrated results illustrate that the biome succession of calcareous nannofossils, relative content of molecular fossils and molecular indices in the cobalt-rich crusts near the 85 mm boundary faithfully record the P/E global event.

Biomineralization of organic matter in cobalt-rich crusts from the Marcus–Wake Seamounts of the western Pacific Ocean

Organic matter in cobalt-rich crust （CRC） from the Marcus-Wake Seamounts of the western Pacific Ocean, Sample CM1D03, has been analyzed to understand the source, geochemistry and mineralization of organic matter, and the mineralization environment. Biomarkers, includingn-alkanes, isoprenoids, terpanes and sterols, have been detected in various layers of the CRC sample, using gas chromatography （GC） and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry （GC-MS）. The content of organic carbon （OC） and its stable isotope （δ13C）, and the combined features of the biomarkers show that the mineralized organic matter in CM1D03 CRC was mainly derived from microorganisms and lower plankton （e.g., bacteria and algae, respectively） from marine surface water, with some terrestrial higher plant components. The ratio of chloroform bitu-men ＂A＂： OC was high in the CRC, between 10.51 and 20.66, showing significant migration characteristics of n-alkanes. Four mineralization categories of organic matter were recognized based on GC chromatograms ofn-alkane molecules： （1） primitive type （bacteria and algae）, which is characterized by moderately mature ofn-alkanes preserving the original characteristics of the organic matter from microorganisms and lower plankton; （2） microbial degradation type, which is characterized by low contents ofn-alkanes and rising baseline in the chromatogram, with the ＂bulge＂ being the products of organic matter by biodegradation; （3） organic matter migration type, which is characterized by low carbon number ofn-alkanes withnC18 as the main peak carbon, without odd even predominance, and low concentrations of isoprenoids and hydro-carbons with high carbon number; and （4） organic matter hydrothermal type, which is characterized by relatively low concentration of small molecular weightn-alkanes, pristane, and phytane, accompanied by higher concentration ofn-alkanes with carbon number greater thannC18. This study shows that biomarkers can record controlling factors of mineralization and their variation.

Morphological description and population structure of an ophiuroid species from cobalt-rich crust seamounts in the Northwest Pacific:Implications for marine protection under deep-sea mining

Many seamounts are covered with cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts,and are increasingly attracting interest for the potential extraction of valuable mineral resources from deep seabed environments.However,the impacts of potential mining activities on the vulnerable seamount ecosystem remain unclear.To enhance the understanding of connectivity in benthic invertebrate populations in the Northwest Pacific,several seamounts were surveyed and biological samples collected.In the present study,the ophiuroid species Ophioplinthaca defensor is reported for the first time from four deep seamounts in the Northwest Pacific,and described,providing more detailed morphological diagnosis characters.To assess the population structure of the species between and within seamounts,two mitochondrial markers(COI and 16 S)were sequenced.In total,20 haplotypes from 32 COI sequences and 8 haplotypes from 3716 S sequences were recovered.The star-shaped TCS networks and nonsignificant pairwise population differences reveal the absence of distinct population structures between and within seamounts.In addition,the O.defensor population seemed to have undergone a demographic expansion in history.This is the first study on the genetic population structure of a benthic invertebrate from seamounts in the Northwest Pacific,and this results suggest a potentially high,long distance dispersal capacity in O.defensor between seamounts,which could inform the development of the Regional Environmental Management Plans for the cobalt-rich crust seamounts in the area.

Geochemistry of rare earth elements in cobalt-rich crusts from the Mid-Pacific M seamount

Rare earth elements（REEs） and major elements of 25 cobalt-rich crusts obtained from different depths of Mid-Pacific M seamount were analyzed using inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectrometer and gravimetric method.The results showed that they were hydrogenous crusts with average ∑REE content of 2084.69 μg/g and the light REE（LREE）/heavy REE（HREE） ratio of 4.84.The shale-normalized REE patterns showed positive Ce anomalies.The total content of strictly trivalent REEs increased with water depth.The Ce content and LREE/HREE ratios in Fe-Mn crusts above 2000 m were lower than those below 2000 m.The change in REE with water depth could be explained by two processes：adsorptive scavenging by setting matters and behaviors of REE in seawater.However, the Ce abundance took no obvious correlation with water depth reflects the constant Ce flux.The Ce in crusts existed mainly as Ce（IV）, implying that the oxidative-enriching process was controlled by kinetic factors.

Noble Gas Isotopic Compositions of Cobalt-rich Ferromanganese Crusts from the Western Pacific Ocean and Their Geological Implications

Noble gas isotopic compositions of various layers in three-layered （outer, porous and compact layers） cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts and their basaltic and phosphorite substrates from the western Pacific Ocean were analyzed by using a high vacuum gas mass spectrum. The analytical results show that the noble gases in the Co-rich crusts have derived mainly from the ambient seawater, extraterrestrial grains such as interplanetary dust particles （IDPs） and wind-borne continental dust grains, and locally formation water in the submarine sediments, but different noble gases have different sources. He in the crusts derives predominantly from the extraterrestrial grains, with a negligible amount of radiogenic He from the eolian dust grains. Ar is sourced mainly from the dissolved air in the seawater and insignificantly from radiogenic Ar in the eolian continental dust grains or the formation water. Xe and Ne derive mainly from the seawater, with minor amounts of extraterrestrial Xe and Ne in the IDPs. Compared with the porous and outer layers, the compact layer has a relatively high 4He content and lower 3He/4He ratios, suggesting that marine phosphatization might have greatly modified the noble gas isotopic compositions of the crusts. Besides, the 3He/4He values of the basaltic substrates of the cobalt-rich crusts are very low and their R/R. ratios are mostly 〈0.1 R., which are similar to that of phosphorite substrates （0.087 R.）, but much lower than that of fresh submarine MORB （8.75±14 Ra） or seamount basalts （3-43 Ra）, implying that the basaltic substrates have suffered strong water/rock interaction and reacted with radiogenic ^4He and P-rich upwelling marine currents during phosphatization. The trace elements released in the basalt/seawater interaction might favor the growth of cobalt-rich crusts. The relatively low ^3He/^4He values in the seamount basalts may be used as an important exploration criterion for the cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts.

An Effective Method to Determine the Distribution Boundary of Cobalt-Rich Fe-Mn Crusts on a Guyot: Synchronous Application of Sub-bottom Profiling and Deep-Sea Video Recording

Determining the upper boundary of the cobalt-rich crust distribution of a guyot is important for estimating the mineral resources available, however, it has also long been an unsolved question. Correlations between the sub-bottom structures, revealed by sub-bottom profiling, and crust distribution can be revealed for the first time by the synchronous application of sub-bottom profiling and deep-sea video recording. The lower boundary of the sediment corresponds with the upper boundary of the crust. By analysis of these two kinds of data, the lower boundary of the sediment can be determined; therefore, the upper boundary of the crust distribution can be deduced. According to this method of analysis, the upper boundary of water depth of crust distribution of a seamount in the western Pacific is about 1 560 m.

Resources calculation of cobalt-rich crusts with the grid subdivision and integral method

On the basis of three geological models and several orebody boundaries, a method of grid subdivision and integral has been proposed to calculate and evaluate the resources of cobalt-rich crusts on the seamounts in the central Pacific Ocean. The formulas of this method are deduced and the interface of program module is designed. The method is carried out in the software ＂Auto mapping system of submarine topography and geomorphology MBChart＂. This method and program will possibly become a potential tool to calculate the resources of seamounts and determine the target diggings for China＇ s next Five-year Plan.

Simulation of Cobalt-Rich Crust’s Crushing Process Based on ANSYS

It is a great concern in international oceanology to mine cobalt-rich crust. At present, spiral mining head is regarded as the best crushing scheme. Based on the dynamic model of spiral mining head, the of cobalt crust’s crushing process was simulated with the ANSYS software. The material model of Johnson and Cook Plasticity, maximal princi- pal stress failure criterion, and eroding contact arithmetic were selected. At the same time, the influence of cutting depth, feed speed, rotational speed of mining head on torque and force subjected by mining head was taken into account. At last a computer simulation model of crushing process of cobalt crust was established. By analyzing simulation results, the relationships among these controllable process parameters, torque and force can be obtained, which will provide a technical reference for practical mining system.

Review on Deep Geophysical Exploration and Research in China

The status of deep geophysical exploration and research in China is summarized in this paper. New achievements in the study of the velocity structure, seismotectonics and geodynamics of the crust and upper mantle are also briefly described.

Ecological functions of uncultured microorganisms in the cobaltrich ferromanganese crust of a seamount in the central Pacific are elucidated by fosmid sequencing

Cobalt-rich ferromanganese is an important seafloor mineral and is abundantly present in the seamount crusts. Such crusts form potential hotspots for biogeochemical activity and microbial diversity, yet our understanding of their microbial communities is lacking. In this study, a cultivation-independent approach was used to recover genomic information and derive ecological functions of the microbes in a sediment sample collected from the cobalt-rich ferromanganese crust of a seamount region in the central Pacific. A total of 78 distinct clones were obtained by fosmid library screening with a 16S rRNA based PCR method. Proteobacteria and MGI Thaumarch-aeota dominated the bacterial and archaeal 16S rRNA gene sequence results in the microbial community. Nine fosmid clones were sequenced and annotated. Numerous genes encoding proteins involved in metabolic functions and heavy metal resistance were identified, suggesting alternative metabolic pathways and stress responses that are essential for microbial survival in the cobalt-rich ferromanganese crust. In addition, genes that participate in the synthesis of organic acids and exoploymers were discovered. Reconstruction of the metabolic pathways revealed that the nitrogen cycle is an important biogeochemical process in the cobalt-rich ferromanganese crust. In addition, horizontal gene transfer （HGT） events have been observed, and most of them came from bacteria, with some occurring in archaea and plants. Clone W4-93a, belonging to MGI Thaumarch-aeota, contained a region of gene synteny. Comparative analyses suggested that a high frequency of HGT events as well as genomic divergence play important roles in the microbial adaption to the deep-sea environment.

Assessment of acoustic backscatter intensity surveying on deep-sea ferromanganese crust: Constraints from Weijia Guyot, western Pacific Ocean

Near-bottom observation data from the manned deep submersible Jiaolong with high-precision underwater positioning data from Weijia Guyot,Magellan Seamounts in the Western Pacific Ocean are reported.Three substrate types were identified:Sediment,ferromanganese crust,and ferromanganese crust with a thin cover of sediment.The ferromanganese crusts show clear zoning and their continuity is usually disturbed by sediments on areas of the mountainside with relatively gentle slope gradients.The identified substrate spatial distributions correspond to acoustic backscatter intensity data,with regions of high intensity always including crust development and regions of low intensity always having sediment.Therefore,acoustic backscatter intensity surveying appears useful in the delineation and evaluation of crust resources,although further more work is needed to develop a practicable methodology.

油气地质勘探将从烃源岩时代进入幔源油气新时代

简要梳理了人类石油勘探发展历程,分析并研究了国内外25个油田(或盆地、油区)的勘探资料,得出结论:石油地质勘探经历过的第一个阶段是背斜(构造)勘探阶段(19世纪60年代~20世纪60年代),第二个阶段是烃源岩勘探阶段(20世纪30年代至今),现在已经进入一个全新的阶段——幔源油气勘探时代。依据幔源油气理论,提出了创新的“盆-壳-幔镜像叠置成藏模式”。

声学探测技术在富钴结壳勘探中的应用及展望

富钴结壳是深海固体矿产之一,其资源潜力巨大,已成为世界各国竞相调查的重要对象。声学探测技术作为一种海洋地球物理探测技术,因其在大面积调查和局部连续精细勘探方面的独特优势,在富钴结壳资源调查中得到了广泛应用。在搜集整理国内外相关文献的基础上,概述了富钴结壳的分布特征,分析传统勘探方法的不足,系统介绍多波束、侧扫声呐、浅地层剖面、原位高频测厚等声学探测技术在富钴结壳勘探中的应用现状。通过比较分析国内外声学探测技术发展现状以及未来富钴结壳勘探需求,提出3点未来发展趋势:开发一体化声学探测技术以实现海底特性的综合性测量;综合利用深海潜水器以实现近底高精度探测;深度融合大数据和人工智能技术以实现海量声学数据的智能化处理。

China Enters a New Stage of Cobalt Crust Exploration

Recently,the'Ocean No.Six'expedition team of the Guangzhou Marine Geological Survey under the China Geological Survey successfully completed the 1.5 m shallow drilling operations at 44 stations set up in the Weijia Guyot mine area,Western Pacific,marking a milestone in the transition of China’s cobalt crust exploration from a resource survey stage to a general exploration stage.

鄂尔多斯盆地奥陶系海相碳酸盐岩天然气勘探领域

通过对鄂尔多斯盆地奥陶系沉积特征、烃源岩条件、储层类型及成藏主控因素的综合分析,认为奥陶系存在盆地中东部风化壳、古隆起周边白云岩体、台缘相带和盆地东部奥陶系盐下四大成藏区带。结合天然气勘探最新进展,优选出奥陶系岩溶风化壳作为勘探的现实目标;同时认为古隆起周边白云岩体、台缘相带及盆地东部奥陶系盐下等三大领域发育多类有效储层及圈闭,成藏潜力巨大,是盆地海相碳酸盐岩天然气勘探的接替领域。

花岗岩和火山岩油气藏的形成及其勘探潜力

随着花岗岩油气藏和火山岩油气藏不断被发现,其油气来源和成藏模式也备受关注,近代研究表明,花岗岩和火山岩中有大量的烃可成为油气藏的物质基础。通过固体力学、流体力学的研究否定了油气倒灌成藏的模式,认为油和气只能是向上垂直运移或侧向运移。通过研究花岗岩和火山岩油气藏的形成模式,指出大火成岩省、地幔柱与油气的关系表明盆地中地壳的低速—高导层可能是油气的主要来源,而花岗岩、火山岩的风化壳是油气成藏的最佳储集层,断裂则是其最主要的运移通道,花岗岩和火山岩油气藏将是未来勘探的重要目标。

离子吸附型稀土找矿及研究新进展

21世纪以来由于稀土资源的战略地位不断提升,全球对稀土的供需变化和价格波动极为关注,并加大了稀土的勘查和开发程度。离子吸附型稀土(iRee)资源因轻重稀土元素配分齐全,且不需要通过矿物分解的方式来分离不同的稀土元素,成为近十多年全球稀土找矿和研究的热点。iRee矿产是我国的优势资源,已有40多年的开采历史,为全球稀土产业尤其是重稀土产业做出了巨大的贡献。近年来,项目组在江西、广西和云南等省区发现了一批矿产地,矿床的分布范围已从我国南方的丘陵地带扩大到高海拔(云南)和高纬度(安徽和浙江)地区,从亚热带气候扩大到热带气候,如越南、缅甸、泰国、马达加斯加及智利等国家。我们的研究继续丰富了iRee成矿"八多两高一深"的认识,即:多类型、多岩性、多期次、多层位、多模式、多标志、多因继承、多相复合,高海拔、高纬度及大深度,新矿床的发现也不断为此认识提供实例。同时,本文对亚热带和热带地区的花岗岩风化壳、华南不同岩性(花岗岩、火山岩和浅变质火山-沉积岩)以及不同稀土配分类型(LREE和HREE型)的iRee矿床进行了对比研究。目前,国内的iRee矿床无论从规模和品位,还是母岩的多样性和稀土配分的全面性都优于国外的。然而,我国长期仍无法摆脱矿山及周边环境污染和优势资源过度消耗的现状。今后,寻找经济价值大的iRee矿床是找矿的重要方向。

塔里木盆地地壳结构特征

地震转换波测深结果表明，塔里木盆地的地壳具有层状－块体的结构特征，地壳厚度为40～50km，分为上、中、下3层。上层地壳（花岗质层）的厚度在盆地中部强烈减薄，而中、下层地壳厚度的横向变化不大。地壳结构的突出特点是：盆地基底面与地党深部界面的分布形状具有准同步起伏变化的特征。地壳速度结构模型表明：塔里木盆地具有陆壳性质。油气分布区地壳速度结构的特征表现为：莫霍面局部强烈上隆，上层地壳（花岗质层）和结晶地壳厚度明显减薄，存在超壳深断裂。同类盆地的油气丰度有巨大差异的主要原因可能与地壳结构特征的差别有密切关系。地震转换波测深法可以经济、有效地探测盆地沉积盖层的深层构造、基底村造以及地壳深部（包括莫霍面）构造，研究介质横向非均匀性的精度较高，在盆地的油气资源勘查中可作为综合物探手段之一。