Thermal fatigue and wear of compacted graphite iron brake discs with various thermomechanical properties

The increase in payload capacity of trucks has heightened the demand for cost-effective yet high performance brake discs.In this work,the thermal fatigue and wear of compacted graphite iron brake discs were investigated,aiming to provide an experimental foundation for achieving a balance between their thermal and mechanical properties.Compacted graphite iron brake discs with different tensile strengths,macrohardnesses,specific heat capacities and thermal diffusion coefficients were produced by changing the proportion and strength of ferrite.The peak temperature,pressure load and friction coefficient of compacted graphite iron brake discs were analyzed through inertia friction tests.The morphology of thermal cracks and 3D profiles of the worn surfaces were also discussed.It is found that the thermal fatigue of compacted graphite iron discs is determined by their thermal properties.A compacted graphite iron with the highest specific heat capacity and thermal diffusion coefficient exhibits optimal thermal fatigue resistance.Oxidization of the matrix at low temperatures significantly weakens the function of alloy strengthening in hindering the propagation of thermal cracks.Despite the reduced hardness,increasing the ferrite proportion can mitigate wear loss resulting from low disc temperatures and the absence of abrasive wear.

Effect of FeSi additive in dual-chamber sample cup on thermal analysis characteristic values and vermiculating rate of compacted graphite iron

Thermal analysis plays a key role in the online inspection of molten iron quality.Different solidification process of molten iron can be reflected by thermal analysis curves,and silicon is one of important elements affecting the solidification of molten iron.In this study,FeSi75 was added in one chamber of the dual-chamber sample cup,and the influences of FeSi75 additive on the characteristic values of thermal analysis curves and vermiculating rate were investigated.The results show that with the increase of FeSi75,the start temperature of austenite formation TALfirstly decreases and then increases,but the start temperature of eutectic growth TSEF,the lowest eutectic temperature TEU,temperature at maximum eutectic reaction rate TEM,and highest eutectic temperature TERkeep always an increase.The temperature at final solidification point TEShas little change.The FeSi75 additive has different influences on the vermiculating rate of molten iron with different vermiculation,and the vermiculating rate increases for lower vermiculation molten iron while decreases for higher one.According to the thermal analysis curves obtained by a dual-chamber sample cup with 0.30wt.%FeSi75 additive in one chamber,the vermiculating rate of molten iron can be evaluated by comparing the characteristic values of these curves.The time differenceΔtERcorresponding to the highest eutectic temperature TERhas a closer relationship with the vermiculating rate,and a parabolic regression curve between the time differenceΔtERand vermiculating rateηhas been obtained within the range of 65%to 95%,which is suitable for the qualified melt.

Compacted graphite iron-A material solution for modern diesel engine cylinder blocks and heads

The demands for improved fuel economy,performance and emissions continue to pose challenges for engine designers and the materials they choose. This is particularly true for modern diesel engines,where the primary path to achieving improved engine performance and emissions is to increase the Peak Firing Pressure in the combustion chamber. The resulting increase in thermal and mechanical loading has required a change from conventional grey cast iron to Compacted Graphite Iron (CGI) in order to satisfy durability requirements without increasing the size or the weight of the engines. With at least 75% higher tensile strength,45% higher stiffness and approximately double the fatigue strength of conventional grey cast iron,CGI satisfies durability requirements and also provides the dimensional stability required to meet emissions legislation throughout the life of the engine. Currently,there are no CGI diesel engines running on the roads in North America. This is set to change considerably as new commercial vehicle and pick-up SUV diesel engines are launched with CGI cylinder blocks in 2008 and 2009. These initial programs will provide over 2 million CGI diesel engines when ramped to mature volume,potentially accounting for 10%-15% of the North American passenger vehicle fleet within the next four years.

A reliable and consistent production technology for high volume compacted graphite iron castings

The demands for improved engine performance,fuel economy,durability,and lower emissions provide a continual challenge for engine designers.The use of Compacted Graphite Iron(CGI)has been established for successful high volume series production in the passenger vehicle,commercial vehicle and industrial power sectors over the last decade.The increased demand for CGI engine components provides new opportunities for the cast iron foundry industry to establish efficient and robust CGI volume production processes,in China and globally.The production window range for stable CGI is narrow and constantly moving.Therefore,any one step single addition of magnesium alloy and the inoculant cannot ensure a reliable and consistent production process for complicated CGI engine castings.The present paper introduces the SinterCast thermal analysis process control system that provides for the consistent production of CGI with low nodularity and reduced porosity,without risking the formation of flake graphite.The technology is currently being used in high volume Chinese foundry production.The Chinese foundry industry can develop complicated high demand CGI engine castings with the proper process control technology.

Influence of fading on characteristics of thermal analysis curve of compacted graphite iron

In general, during the production of compacted graphite iron (CGI), the active residual magnesium reduces and the effect of inoculation fades after magnesium treatment. In this paper, characteristics of the thermal analysis curve of CGI are compared with those of ductile iron and grey cast iron. The fading effect on the compacted graphite percentage and thermal analysis curve were also studied. Results indicate that the undercooling of CGI is as low as that of ductile iron, but CGI shows evident recalescence. In fading process, the magnesium element acts with oxygen. For a decrease in magnesium content, both the compacted graphite percentage and the austenitic liquidus temperature increase. The temperature of eutectic undercooling (TEU) decreases before the flake graphite appears. After that, TEU increases quickly, up to as high as 20℃, and then gradually decreases. The evolution of recalescence degree is opposite to that of TEU.

Effects of alloy elements on ductility and thermal conductivity of compacted graphite iron

The infl uence of Si, Sn, Mo and Ni on the ductility and thermal conductivity of compacted graphite iron(CGI) was investigated. Metallographic observation and Differential Scanning Calorimetry(DSC) experiments were carried out to analyze the roles of various additions in the eutectoid reaction. The experimental results showed that the ductility of CGI is proportional to the ferrite fraction, so moderate Si content could dramatically improve the ductility by increasing the ferrite fraction. DSC measurements showed that Mo has moderate inhibition on eutectoid transformation during both the heating and cooling processes, while the sample without Sn obviously broadens the three-phase region. Vermicularity and ferrite are known to improve thermal conductivity, and the former plays a more important role. Besides, among the alloy elements investigated, Sn has the greatest negative effect on conductivity, followed by Ni and Mo having the smallest effects.

Aluminium in compacted graphite iron

Compacted graphite was obtained using inmold technology.The effect of aluminium on the crystallization process,microstructure,ferrite microhardness,and hardness of compacted graphite iron was studied.The microscopic and diffraction tests were also performed,and the process of cast iron crystallization was also investigated.Results show that aluminium increases the temperature of the eutectic transformation as well as the transformation temperature in the solid state.It is found that aluminium is a graphite forming element in compacted graphite iron(CGI)at a concentration up to 2.4wt.%.When its concentration is higher than 3.1wt.%,aluminium causes the spheroidization of the carbides in eutectoid mixture.It is also demonstrated that in cast iron with an aluminium content higher than^8wt.%,AlFe3C(0.5)phase crystallizes from the liquid.

Investigation of Material Properties Based on 3D Graphite Morphology for Compacted Graphite Iron

The strength and thermal conductivity of compacted graphite iron(CGI)are crucial performance indicators in its engineering application.The presence of graphite in CGI significantly influences the two properties.In the previous studies,graphite in CGI was often described using two-dimensional(2D)morphology.In this study,the three-dimensional(3D)size,shape,and distribution of graphite in CGI were analyzed using X-ray tomography.Based on this,a new method is introduced to calculate the 3D vermicularity and compare it with the 2D vermicularity in terms of tensile properties and thermal conductivity.The results demonstrate that vermicular graphite exhibits greater connectivity in 3D observation compared to 2D observation.Therefore,the calculation method of 3D vermicularity is determined by considering the surface area and volume of the connected graphite.Then a linear relationship between 3 and 2D vermicularity has been observed.By comparing the correlation coefficient,it has been found that the 3D vermicularity offers a more accurate method to establish the relationship among graphite morphology,thermal conductivity and tensile property of CGI.

Experimental and FEM Study of Coated and Uncoated Tools Used for Dry Milling of Compacted Graphite Cast Iron

Compacted graphite cast iron （CG1） has been the material for high-power diesel engines recently, but its increased strength causes poor machinability. In this study, coated and uncoated carbide tools were used in dry milling experiment and FEM simulation to study the machinability of CGI and wear behaviour of tools. The experimental and FEM simulation results show that coated tool has great advantage in dry milling of CGI. SEM and EDS analysis of tool wear indicate the wear morphology and wear mechanism. Adhesive wear is the main mechanism to cause un- coated tool wear, while abrasive wear and delamination wear are the main mechanism to cause coated tool wear. Stress and temperature distribution in FEM simulation help to understand the wear mechanism including the reason for coat- ing peeled off.

Modelling of compacted graphite cast iron solidification-Discussion of microstructure parameters

A melt maintained for hours in a press pour unit allowed the following changes over time from spheroidal graphite to compacted graphite iron by casting thermal cups at regular time intervals.This provided extensive experimental information for checking the possibility of simulating solidification of compacted graphite irons by means of a microstructure modelling approach.During solidification,compacted graphite develops very much as lamellar graphite but with much less branching.On this basis,a simulation of the thermal analysis records was developed which considers solidification proceeding in a pseudo binary Fe-C system.The simulated curves were compared with the experimental ones obtained from three representative alloys that cover the whole microstructure change during the holding of the melt.The most relevant result is that the parameter describing branching capability of graphite is the most important for reproducing the minimum eutectic temperature and the recalescence which are so characteristic of the solidification of compacted graphite cast irons.

Mixed graphite cast iron for automotive exhaust component applications

Both spheroidal graphite iron and compacted graphite iron are used in the automotive industry. A recently proposed mixed graphite iron exhibits a microstructure between the conventional spheroidal graphite iron and compacted graphite iron. Evaluation results clearly indicate the suitability and benefits of mixed graphite iron for exhaust component applications with respect to casting, machining, mechanical, thermophysical, oxidation, and thermal fatigue properties. A new ASTM standard specification(A1095) has been created for compacted, mixed, and spheroidal graphite silicon-molybdenum iron castings. This paper attempts to outline the latest progress in mixed graphite iron published.

Iron casting skin management in no-bake mould – Effects of magnesium residual level and mould coating

The relative performance of coatings for furan resin sand moulds [P-toluol sulphonic acid(PTSA) as hardener] [FRS-PTSA moulds], was compared by analyzing the surface layer for degenerated graphite in Mg treated iron with 0.020 wt.% to 0.054 wt.% Mgres. It was found that the iron nodularising potential(Mg, Ce, La content) and whether the mould coatings contained S, or were capable of desulphurizing were important factors. These moulds have S in the PTSA binder, which aggravates graphite degeneration in the surface layer, depending strongly on the Mgres with lower Mgres increasing the layer thickness. The application of a mould coating strongly influenced graphite deterioration in the surface layer of castings. It either promoted graphite degeneration to less compact morphologies when using S-bearing coatings, or conversely, limited the surface layer thickness using desulphurization type coatings. Independently of the S-source at the metal – mould interface, the presence of sulphur had an adverse effect on graphite quality at the surface of Mg-treated irons, but its negative effect could also reach the graphite phase within the casting section. If the coatings employed desulphurization materials, such as Mg O, or a mixture(Ca O + Mg O + Talc) or Mgbearing Fe Si, they protected the graphite shape, improving graphite nodularity, at the metal – mould interface, and so decreased the average layer thickness in FRS-PTSA moulds. Fe Si Mg was highly efficient in minimizing the casting skin by improving graphite nodularity. It is presumed that the Mg O or(Mg O + Ca O + Talc) based coatings acted to remove any S released by the mould media. The Mg-Fe Si coatings also reacted with S from the mould but additionally supplemented the Mg nodularising potential prior to solidification. This dual activity is achievable with coatings containing active magnesium derived from fine Mg-Fe Si materials.

Thermal conductivity of cast iron-A review

This paper gives a brief introduction to the four research methods for the study on thermal conductivity of cast irons,including experimental measurement,statistical analysis,effective medium theory and numerical simulation.Recent studies on the thermal conductivity of various cast irons are reviewed through the influence of alloying elements,structural constituents,and temperature.The addition of alloying elements is the main reason that restricts the thermal conductivity of cast irons,especially spheroidal graphite cast iron.The connectivity of graphite has a significant effect on the thermal conductivity of flake and compacted graphite cast irons,semiquantitative and quantitative analysis of this factor is a key and difficult point in the study of thermal conductivity of cast irons.The thermal conductivities of different types of cast irons show varying degrees of dependence on temperature.This phenomenon is the combination of graphite and matrix,rather than just depending on graphite morphology.The study of the relationship between individual phase and temperature is the focus of future research.These summaries and discussions may provide reference and guidance for the future research and development of high thermal conductivity cast irons.

Some paradoxical observations about spheroidal graphite degeneracy

Differential thermal analysis experiments have been performed on samples machined from Y2-blocks cast with different high-silicon spheroidal graphite irons. Depending on magnesium, silicon, cerium and antimony content, the as-cast microstructure showed various levels of chunky graphite in the central part of the blocks. In contrast, the microstructure of the materials after remelting and resolidification during differential thermal analysis consisted of lamellar or compacted graphite. The formation of chunky graphite in the as-cast microstructure is rationalized using an index or silicon equivalent that has been recently suggested. The differences in the microstructures after differential thermal analysis are discussed in terms of available free magnesium. Emphasis is finally put on the striking differences in characteristic size of the microstructures made of compacted graphite as compared to lamellar graphite and chunky graphite. This leads to tentative conclusions about growth of compacted and chunky graphite which would be worthy of further experimental investigations.

RuT450蠕墨铸铁铣削加工刀具角度和铣削参数的仿真优化与实验研究

蠕墨铸铁是制造新型高性能柴油发动机缸体和缸盖的优选材料。根据刀具手册的推荐,目前蠕墨铸铁切削加工时刀具角度和加工参数主要选择铸铁类通用型参数,其适用性还有待针对性优化。本文以蠕墨铸铁RuT450为铣削加工对象,利用有限元铣削加工仿真,以较低的的铣削力和铣削温度为优化目标,对蠕墨铸铁铣削加工的刀具角度和加工参数进行优选,得到铣削加工蠕墨铸铁适宜的铣刀片角度为4°前角配合8°后角,在此基础上根据有限元仿真得到较适合的三组铣削加工参数。采用仿真优选出的刀具角度和加工参数开展RuT450铣削实验,结果表明,当主轴转速为700r/min、进给速度为850mm/min时,铣削力最小,铣削温度较低,加工表面的质量最好,并通过实验验证了仿真模型的有效性。该研究对蠕墨铸铁铣削加工的刀具和工艺优选具有重要的实际意义。

铸件厚度与热处理对RuT450蠕墨铸铁微观组织与力学性能的影响

对重卡发动机的蠕墨铸铁缸体不同厚度部分进行取样,采用3D激光显微镜、扫描电子显微镜、电子万能材料试验机以及X射线应力分析仪等分析测试手段,研究了不同铸造厚度蠕墨铸铁RuT450的显微组织、蠕化率、表面残余应力、布氏硬度、拉伸强度等性能,还研究了去应力退火、不同时长的自然时效处理下蠕墨铸铁RuT450的组织变化和力学性能演变规律。结果表明:相对较厚的蠕墨铸铁铸件石墨蠕化率较高;蠕墨铸铁的铸态表层残余应力为压应力,且随试样厚度的增加而逐渐增大;在保证强度指标的前提下适度的退火处理比自然时效能更高效地释放表面残余应力;蠕墨铸铁表面硬度及强度随着试样厚度的增加而逐渐降低,退火处理可进一步降低表面硬度和强度。该研究结论对蠕墨铸铁切削性能评价及优选切削加工工艺提供了重要的理论依据。

铸件厚度及退火处理对蠕墨铸铁切削加工性能的影响

以发动机缸体材料蠕墨铸铁RuT450为研究对象,通过监测其铣削加工过程中的切削力、切削温度及已加工表面粗糙度的变化,结合微观组织及力学性能演变分析其对切削性能的影响。研究表明,铸造厚度不同,材料的微观组织和力学性能不同;切削力是石墨含量、蠕化率、残余应力、硬度、抗拉强度等性能指标的综合反映,切削热则与切削力密切相关;在保证强度指标的前提下,退火处理有助于降低铣削加工时的切削温度,对适度厚度的工件还可以降低切削力。在相对低速铣削时,退火处理可有效提高工件的加工表面质量;在保证满足表面质量的前提下,去应力退火后可以适当提升切削速度,提高蠕墨铸铁加工效率。

宽幅温度和应力范围下蠕墨铸铁的蠕变试验及本构模型对比研究

随着发动机功率密度的增加,气缸盖在运行过程中所承受的温度和应力也增加,因此蠕变损伤预测需要考虑准确的蠕变本构模型和参数。针对蠕墨铸铁(Compacted Graphite cast Iron,CGI)气缸盖大范围的温度和应力工作条件,开展温度450~550℃、试验应力100~300 MPa条件下的CGI蠕变试验,进行表征宽幅温度和应力下CGI最小蠕变速率的蠕变本构模型对比研究。研究表明:与较小的温度和应力范围相比,在宽幅条件下CGI更容易发生蠕变损伤,且温度相比应力更能促使CGI发生蠕变变形;分别基于Norton⁃Bailey幂律模型、Garofalo双曲正弦模型和变形机制的真应力(Deformation Mechanism⁃based True Stress,DMTS)模型,结合多目标优化方法,构建了CGI蠕变本构模型。其中,基于DMTS模型的CGI蠕变模型有73%的预测值在两倍误差范围内,吻合效果在三种模型中为最佳。

蠕墨铸铁钻削加工有限元分析及刀具结构优选研究

蠕墨铸铁是制造柴油发动机缸体和缸盖的理想材料,但因为其自身的难加工性以及发动机缸体、缸盖上孔加工工艺的占比较高,使得实际生产中孔加工刀具的成本较高,因此优选蠕墨铸铁孔加工刀具的结构很有必要。以蠕墨铸铁RuT450为钻削加工对象,利用钻削力理论模型预测了五种不同钻头结构加工RuT450的钻削力和扭矩;通过有限元分析对钻头结构进行了优选,得到了钻削性能较好的三种钻头结构;使用优选的三种钻头进行了RuT450孔加工实验,通过建立模糊综合评价模型对三种钻头的钻削性能进行了综合评价,获得了性能较优的钻头结构;通过实验结果验证了建立的钻削力模型的有效性。本研究对于提高蠕墨铸铁钻削加工质量和降低刀具成本具有重要的指导意义。

15吨蠕墨铸铁件工艺浅析

近年来,生产高牌号灰铸铁大型船用发动机机体多次出现裂纹缺陷,影响发动机的整体性能和使用寿命,鉴于蠕墨铸铁的特殊性能,开发大型船用蠕墨铸铁机体成为必然趋势。从蠕化处理、熔炼工艺和铸件检测三个方面优化和试验验证,逐一解决大吨位蠕墨铸铁生产技术难点,有效降低裂纹缺陷风险,最终实现对大型船用蠕墨铸铁件的批量稳定生产。