A review of the research on complex erosion by wind and water

Complex erosion by wind and water, which is also called aeolian-fluvial interactions, is an important erosion process and landscape in arid and semiarid regions. The effectiveness of links between wind and water process, spatial environmental transitions and temporal environmental change are the three main driving forces determining the geomorphologic significance of aeolian-fluvial interactions. As a complex interrelating and intercoupling system, complex erosion by wind and water has spatial- temporal variation features. The process of complex erosion by wind and water can be divided into palaeoenvironmental process and contemporary process. Early work in drylands has often been attributed to one of two schools advocating either an ＇aeolianist＇ or a ＇fluvialist＇ perspective, so it was not until the 1930s that the research on complex erosion by wind and water had been conducted. There are two obstacles restricting the research of complex erosion by wind and water. Firstly, how to transform in different temporal and spatial scales is still unsettled; and secondly, the research methodology is still immature. In the future, the mechanism and control of erosion, the complex soil erodibility in wind and water erosion will be the focus of research on complex erosion by wind and water.

Interactions between wind and water erosion change sediment yield and particle distribution under simulated conditions

Wind and water erosion are among the most important causes of soil loss, and understanding their interactions is important for estimating soil quality and environmental impacts in regions where both types of erosion occur. We used a wind tunnel and simulated rainfall to study sediment yield, particle-size distribution and the fractal dimension of the sediment particles under wind and water erosion. The experiment was conducted with wind ero- sion firstly and water erosion thereafter, under three wind speeds （0, 11 and 14 m/s） and three rainfall intensities （60, 80 and 100 ram/h）. The results showed that the sediment yield was positively correlated with wind speed and rain- fall intensity （P〈0.01）. Wind erosion exacerbated water erosion and increased sediment yield by 7.25%-38.97% relative to the absence of wind erosion. Wind erosion changed the sediment particle distribution by influencing the micro-topography of the sloping land surface. The clay, silt and sand contents of eroded sediment were also posi- tively correlated with wind speed and rainfall intensity （P〈0.01）. Wind erosion increased clay and silt contents by 0.35%-19.60% and 5.80%-21.10%, respectively, and decreased sand content by 2.40%-8.33%, relative to the absence of wind erosion. The effect of wind erosion on sediment particles became weaker with increasing rainfall intensities, which was consistent with the variation in sediment yield. However, particle-size distribution was not closely correlated with sediment yield （P〉0.05）. The fractal dimension of the sediment particles was significantly different under different intensities of water erosion （P〈0.05）, but no significant difference was found under wind and water erosion. The findings reported in this study implicated that both water and wind erosion should be controlled to reduce their intensifying effects, and the controlling of wind erosion could significantly reduce water erosion in this wind-water erosion crisscross region.

An experimental study on the influences of water erosion on wind erosion in arid and semi-arid regions

Complex erosion by wind and water causes serious harm in arid and semi-arid regions. The interaction mechanisms between water erosion and wind erosion is the key to further our understanding of the complex erosion. Therefore, in-depth understandings of the influences of water erosion on wind erosion is needed. This research used a wind tunnel and two rainfall simulators to investigate the influences of water erosion on succeeding wind erosion. The wind erosion measurements before and after water erosion were run on semi-fixed aeolian sandy soil configured with three slopes(5°, 10° and 15°), six wind speeds(0, 9, 11, 13, 15 and 20 m/s), and five rainfall intensities(0, 30, 45, 60 and 75 mm/h). Results showed that water erosion generally restrained the succeeding wind erosion. At a same slope, the restraining effects decreased as rainfall intensity increased, which decreased from 70.63% to 50.20% with rainfall intensity increased from 30 to 75 mm/h. Rills shaped by water erosion could weaken the restraining effects at wind speed exceeding 15 m/s mainly by cutting through the fine grain layer, exposing the sand layer prone to wind erosion to airflow. In addition, the restraining effects varied greatly among different soil types. The restraining effects of rainfall on the succeeding wind erosion depend on the formation of a coarsening layer with a crust and a compact fine grain layer after rainfall. The findings can deepen the understanding of the complex erosion and provide scientific basis for regional soil and water conservation in arid and semi-arid regions.

Weathering of Pisha-Sandstones in the Wind-Water Erosion Crisscross Region on the Loess Plateau

Two types of pisha-sandstones of purple sandstones and gray sandstones,widely distributing in the wind-water erosion crisscross region of China,were selected and used in laboratory experiments for a better understanding of the drying-wetting-freezing weathering process resulting from the apportionment of water or salt solution to rock samples.Weathering experiments were carried out under the conditions of environment control(including temperature,moisture and salt solution).All rock samples were frequently subjected to 140 drying-wetting-freezing cycles.The influences of weathering process were evaluated.It was found that the different treatments of moisture and salt solution applications could affect the nature of the weathering products resulting from drying-wetting-freezing.It was also observed that salt solution could effectively alleviate the weathering of pisha-sandstones.Although not all the observations could be explained,it was apparent that simulated environmental factors had both direct and indirect effects on the weathering of rocks.

Influence of Vegetation on Runoff and Sediment in Wind-water Erosion Crisscross Region in the Upper Yellow River of China

All characteristics of vegetation,runoff and sediment from 1960 to 2010 in the Xiliu Gully Watershed,which is a representative watershed in wind-water erosion crisscross region in the upper reaches of the Yellow River of China,have been analyzed in this study.Based on the remote sensing image data,and used multi-spectral interpretation method,the characteristics of vegetation variation in the Xiliu Gully Watershed have been analyzed.And the rules of precipitation,runoff and sediment's changes have been illuminated by using mathematical statistics method.What′s more,the influence mechanism of vegetation on runoff and sediment has been discussed by using the data obtained from artificial rainfall simulation test.The results showed that the main vegetation type was given priority to low coverage,and the area of the low vegetation coverage type was reducing year by year.On the country,the area of the high vegetation coverage type was gradually increasing.In a word,vegetation conditions had got better improved since 2000 when the watershed management project started.The average annual precipitation of the river basin also got slightly increase in 2000–2010.The average annual runoff reduced by 37.5%,and the average annual sediment reduced by 73.9% in the same period.The results of artificial rainfall simulation tests showed that the improvement of vegetation coverage could increase not only soil infiltration but also vegetation evapotranspiration,and then made the rainfall-induced runoff production decrease.Vegetation root system could increases the resistance ability of soil to erosion,and vegetation aboveground part could reduce raindrop kinetic energy and splash soil erosion.Therefore,with the increase of vegetation coverage,the rainfall-induced sediment could decrease.

Spatial Scale Effects of Water Erosion Dynamics:Complexities, Variabilities, and Uncertainties

Severe water erosion is notorious for its harmful effects on land-water resources as well as local societies. The scale effects of water erosion, however, greatly exacerbate the difficulties of accurate erosion evaluation and hazard control in the real world. Analyzing the related scale issues is thus urgent for a better understanding of erosion variations as well as reducing such erosion. In this review article, water erosion dynamics across three spatial scales including plot, watershed, and regional scales were selected and discussed. For the study purposes and objectives, the advantages and disadvantages of these scales all demonstrate clear spatial-scale dependence. Plot scale studies are primarily focused on abundant data collection and mechanism discrimination of erosion generation, while watershed scale studies provide valuable information for watershed management and hazard control as well as the development of quantitatively distributed models. Regional studies concentrate more on large-scale erosion assessment, and serve policymakers and stakeholders in achieving the basis for regulatory policy for comprehensive land uses. The results of this study show that the driving forces and mechanisms of water erosion variations among the scales are quite different. As a result, several major aspects contributing to variations in water erosion across the scales are stressed: differences in the methodologies across various scales, different sink-source roles on water erosion processes, and diverse climatic zones and morphological regions. This variability becomes more complex in the context of accelerated global change. The changing climatic factors and earth surface features are considered the fourth key reason responsible for the increased variability of water erosion across spatial scales.

Relationship Between Watershed Landscape Pattern Change and Runoff-Sediment in Wind-Water Erosion Crisscross Region

This paper selected the typical wind-water erosion crisscross region Xiliugou watershed for research to reveal the impact of the landscape pattern change of the underlying surface in wind-water erosion crisscross region where soil erosion is most serious on rainfall and runoff as well as erosion and sediment.Based on the Landsat TM image data and measured data of runoff-sediment in that watershed,the paper analyzed the characteristics of watershed landscape pattern change and runoff-sediment and explored the relationship between landscape index and runoff-sediment yield by means of GIS and Fragstats.The results were included as follows.(1)Grassland was the dominant landscape.In terms of the number of patches and area change rate,from 1985 to 2010,cultivated land,forest land and construction land were most stable,followed by unused land.Unused land,grassland and cultivated land experienced the most dramatic conversion and maximally affected by human activities.(2)The inter-annual difference between annual runoff and annual sediment load was significant.Compared with the annual sediment load,the trend of decreasing runoff was more obvious.The correlation coefficient of runoff-sediment was 0.67,representing a significant correlation.(3)There was a significant correlation between the landscape index and runoff-sediment.The runoff was negatively correlated with the largest patch index,patch cohesion index,aggregation index and contagion index,but positively correlated with landscape morphology index and landscape division index.And the sediment was negatively correlated with the contagion index,aggregation index and plaque cohesion index,but positively correlated with other landscape indexes.The results indicate that with the increase of the largest patch index,patch cohesion index and aggregation index,the rainfall infiltration capacity increase obviously and the soil erosion reduce significantly.Therefore,increasing the largest patch index,patch cohesion and aggregation index of the watershed landscape can enhance the function of water storage and soil conservation as well as ecological optimization in the windwater erosion crisscross region.The results can provide theoretical support for the ecological environment construction and comprehensive utilization of water and soil resources.

Review and prospect of soil compound erosion

Soil erosion is one of the most serious environmental issues constraining the sustainable development of human society and economies.Soil compound erosion is the result of the alternation or interaction between two or more erosion forces.In recent years,fluctuations and extreme changes in climatic factors(air temperature,precipitation,wind speed,etc.)have led to an increase in the intensity and extent of compound erosion,which is increasingly considered in soil erosion research.First,depending on the involvement of gravity,compound erosion process can be divided into compound erosion with and without gravity.We systematically summarized the research on the mechanisms and processes of alternating or interacting soil erosion forces(wind,water,and freeze-thaw)considering different combinations,combed the characteristics of compound erosion in three typical regions,namely,high-elevation areas,high-latitude areas,and dry and wet transition regions,and reviewed soil compound erosion research methods,such as station observations,simulation experiments,prediction models,and artificial neural networks.The soil erosion model of wind,water,and freeze-thaw interaction is the most significant method for quantifying and predicting compound erosion.Furthermore,it is proposed that there are several issues such as unclear internal mechanisms,lack of comprehensive prediction models,and insufficient scale conversion methods in soil compound erosion research.It is also suggested that future soil compound erosion mechanism research should prioritize the coupling of compound erosion forces and climate change.

An experimental study on the influences of wind erosion on water erosion

In semi-arid regions, complex erosion resulted from a combination of wind and water actions has led to a massive soil loss and a comprehensive understanding of its mechanism is the first step toward prevention of the erosion. However, the mutual influences between wind erosion and water erosion have not been fully understood. This research used a wind tunnel and two rainfall simulators and simulated two rounds of alternations between wind erosion and water erosion（i.e., 1^（st） wind erosion–1^（st） water erosion and 2^（nd） wind erosion–2^（nd） water erosion） on three slopes（5°, 10°, and 15°） with six wind speeds（0, 9, 11, 13, 15, and 20 m/s） and five rainfall intensities（0, 30, 45, 60, and 75 mm/h）. The objective was to analyze the influences of wind erosion on succeeding water erosion. Results showed that the effects of wind erosion on water erosion were not the same in the two rounds of tests. In the 1^（st） round of tests, wind erosion first restrained and then intensified water erosion mostly because the blocking effect of wind-sculpted micro-topography on surface flow was weakened with the increase in slope. In the 2^（nd） round of tests, wind erosion intensified water erosion on beds with no rills at gentle slopes and low rainfall intensities or with large-size rills at steep slopes and high rainfall intensities. Wind erosion restrained water erosion on beds with small rills at moderate slopes and moderate rainfall intensities. The effects were mainly related to the fine grain layer, rills and slope of the original bed in the 2^（nd） round of tests. The findings can deepen our understanding of complex erosion resulted from a combination of wind and water actions and provide scientific references to regional soil and water conservation.

1970—2020年黄土高原水蚀风蚀交错区极端降水时空变化研究及驱动因素分析

黄土高原水蚀风蚀交错区作为中国北方典型的生态脆弱区,因其独特地形和气候条件,极端降雨事件对其环境和生态系统的影响更加突出。选取水蚀风蚀交错区28个气象站点,结合RClimDex模型计算11个极端降水指数,采用线性相关分析法、Mann-Kendall趋势检验法和小波交叉法,分析了1970—2020年黄土高原水蚀风蚀交错区极端降水事件时空分布特征,探讨了极端降水事件的驱动因素。结果表明:(1)1970—2020年水蚀风蚀交错区持续干燥日数(CDD)呈下降趋势,其余10个指数呈上升趋势,反映出近50a研究区极端降水事件的频率、量级和强度不断增加。交错区年降水量增加和极端降水事件增加具有密切关系,且极端降水事件增加主要是由中雨日数(R10)和大雨日数(R20)引起。(2)1970—2020年极端降水事件在全区整体为增加趋势,交错区中部和西南部极端降水事件显著发生,陕西段极端降水量和强度呈显著增加趋势且极端化程度更显著。(3)湿日总降水量(PRCPTOT)、暴雨日数(R25)、5d最大降水量(R5d)3个极端降水指数,与影响因子厄尔尼诺-南方涛动(ENSO)、东亚夏季风(EASM)和太阳黑子(SN)具有不同的功率,与SN的交叉小波变换功率最大,说明影响因子中SN和极端降水指数的相关性最高,SN对极端降水事件的影响最大。

The wind-water two-phase erosion and sediment-producing processes in the middle Yellow River basin, China

Based on data from the middle Yellow River basin, a wind-water two-phase mechanism for erosion and sediment-producing processes has been found. By using this mechanism, the extremely strong erosion and sediment yield in the study area can be better explained. The operation of wind and water forces is different in different seasons within a year. During winter and spring, strong wind blows large quantities of eolian sand to gullies and river channels, which are temporally stored there. During the next summer, rainstorms cause runoff that contains much fine loessic material and acts as a powerful force to carry the previously prepared coarse material. As a result, hyperconcentrated flows occur, resulting in high-intensity erosion and sediment yield.

黄土高原水蚀风蚀交错区固氮微生物群落多样性在生物结皮中的演变规律

生物土壤结皮在黄土高原的水土保持、养分补给等方面发挥着重要生态功能。固氮微生物是固氮过程的关键功能群,影响着土壤氮素平衡,然而黄土高原水蚀风蚀交错区严重的水土流失导致土壤养分大量损失,尤其是氮素。该区域生物结皮广泛发育,它们在干旱半干旱区土壤氮素积累过程中起着重要作用。但是该区域生物结皮不同发育阶段中的固氮潜力、固氮微生物群落多样性及其关键环境控制因子尚不清楚。以黄土高原水蚀风蚀交错区为研究区,三种生物结皮类型和裸地对照为研究对象,采用Illumina HiSeq平台对nifH基因扩增产物进行生物信息学分析,揭示了固氮潜力及微生物群落多样性的分布规律。结果表明,生物结皮演替显著影响固氮酶活性、nifH基因丰度和固氮微生物α-多样性,各值均在苔藓结皮最高,显著高于其它演替阶段,且生物结皮层高于结皮下层土壤。在固氮微生物群落组成上,裸地以变形菌门的红螺菌目、酸硫杆菌目和根瘤菌目为主;而在藻结皮、地衣结皮和藓结皮阶段,均表现为蓝藻门的念珠藻目占绝对优势,是固氮微生物的关键类群,其中Trichormus、念珠藻属是优势固氮物种;与藻结皮、地衣结皮相比,藓结皮中念珠藻目的相对丰度显著降低,而变形菌门的红螺菌目、酸硫杆菌目和根瘤菌目的丰度明显上升。除此之外,蓝杆藻属、鱼腥藻属、斯克尔曼氏菌属、瘤胃梭菌属在藻结皮、地衣结皮、藓结皮也占明显优势。念珠藻目以及Trichormus的丰度与固氮酶活性、nifH基因丰度呈显著正相关关系,而与红螺菌目、酸硫杆菌目、梭菌目、根瘤菌目呈显著负相关;Trichormus相关的物种在黄土高原生物结皮氮输入过程中可能发挥着关键作用。生物结皮演替通过改变土壤pH值、有机质、全氮、含水量等理化特征而影响了微生境,通过环境筛选和物种重排作用对固氮微生物群落进行综合调控,其中pH与土壤全氮(TN)发挥着关键作用。

Spatial distribution of surface rock fragment on hillslopes in a small catchment in wind-water erosion crisscross region of the Loess Plateau

The cover and size distributions of surface rock fragment in hillslopes were investigated by using digital photographing and treating technique in a small catchment in wind-water erosion crisscross region of the Loess Plateau. The results indicated that the maximal cover of rock fragment was pre-sented at mid-position in steep hillslope. Rock fragment presented a general decreasing-trend along the hillslope in gentle hillslope. Rock fragment cover was positively related to gradient, rock fragment size decreased generally along the hillslope, and the size reduced with the gradient. The mean size of rock fragment was at a range of 6―20 mm in the steep hillslope, rock fragment size > 50 mm was rarely presented. The covers of rock fragment at different positions were markedly related to the quantities of rock fragment < 40 mm. The area of rock fragment of 2―50 mm accounted for 60% or more of the total area, dominating the distribution of rock fragment in the hillslopes.

黄土干旱区电网工程水土流失机理及其治理方法研究——以宁夏地区为例

选取干旱风沙区与黄土丘陵区为研究区域,基于风力侵蚀和水力侵蚀2种主要侵蚀模式,通过试验分析研究了电网工程水土流失的影响因子及其主要机理;采用土壤肥力提升技术及土壤保墒技术相结合的方式促进植被恢复,系统性提出了适用于宁夏地区的水土流失治理方法,为推进宁夏地区电网生态高质量发展提供了理论支撑。

Simulation Study on the Dynamic Processes of Natural-Social Complex System of Soil Wind Erosion

The studies of soil wind erosion in China were concentrated on field deflation observation and qualitative analysis of wind erosion factors in the 1970s.In the subsequent decade,a series of simulation studies were conducted in wind tunnel to explore the physical mechanism of soil wind erosion.In the meanwhile,the effects

呼和浩特至杀虎口(蒙晋界)段公路水土流失与预测分析

长距离线性道路工程施工周期长、扰动面积大,容易造成严重的水土流失,同时,由于工程所穿越地区的地质条件不同,需要分区讨论水土流失情况。以内蒙古自治区呼和浩特至杀虎口(蒙晋界)段公路为例,在实地调查与经验类比相结合的基础上,确定工程平原区及丘陵区的风蚀模数分别为1000 t/(km^(2)·a)和2000 t/(km^(2)·a),水蚀模数分别为500 t/(km^(2)·a)和3000 t/(km^(2)·a)。根据施工进度安排和监测结果 ,预测工程施工期造成的水土流失面积为1019.69 hm^(2),自然恢复期水土流失面积为375.48 hm^(2),工程建设期内共产生水土流失总量547914 t,其中新增流失量378487 t。

风水两相侵蚀研究现状及我国今后风水蚀的主要研究内容

土壤侵蚀的主要方式是风蚀和水蚀 ,对其研究历史较长 ,已经有了初步的认识。在我国 ,由于独特的季风气候和地理位置 ,风水两相侵蚀面积广布。风水两相侵蚀不是简单的风蚀加水蚀 ,而是一个相互作用呈周期循环的复杂体系 ,国内外关于风水两相侵蚀的研究较少。在阐述风水驱动因素的基础上 ,说明了我国一些基本的风水两相侵蚀类型 ,并对风水两相侵蚀的复杂性进行描述。今后在对这些类型研究的基础上 ,可进一步确立风水侵蚀交错带的范围及分布 ,并将其作为一个特殊的区域对待 。

北方农牧交错带风水蚀复合区水土流失现状与综合治理对策

风水蚀复合区是中国北方农牧交错带的一部分。区域的东面与南面毗邻水蚀地貌形态,东南界为沙漠化土地发生、发展的东南界;区域的西面与北面与风蚀地貌形态接壤,西北界为旱作农业的西北界。复合区包括74个县(旗),面积42.77万km2,总人口2400万(2004年)。主要生态问题为:沙漠化持续发展,沙尘暴频发;土地退化严重,承载力急剧下降;生态环境恶化,自然灾害频繁。复合区水土流失的主要特点表现为风水蚀在时间上交错,空间上叠加。受侵蚀营力系统与环境系统的制约,水土流失类型表现出明显的地域分异规律。2000年水土流失面积26万1517.35 km2,占全区土地面积的61.14%;复合区每年流失土壤11.97亿t,其中水力侵蚀量5.55亿t,风力侵蚀量6.42亿t。近20多年来,复合区大部分地区的水土流失面积有所减少,侵蚀强度有所降低。随着国家加大生态建设的力度,预计在未来的十到几十年,复合区的水土流失态势将呈现逐步逆转的趋势,但局部的水土流失状况依然很严峻。风水蚀复合区水土流失治理要以预防为主、保护领先为原则,生物措施、农业技术与工程措施相结合综合治理,把国家的生态需求与农户的经济需求相结合,依法协调经济开发与环境保护的关系,注重科学研究,提高科技含量。根据风水蚀复合区现状,提出了一些治理工程项目,主要包括复合区黄河粗泥沙综合治理工程和生态修复工程。这些工程的实施,将大大减少进入黄河的粗泥沙量,风水蚀复合区水土流失状况可以得到改善。

风水复合侵蚀研究述评

风水复合侵蚀或风水交互作用是干旱、半干旱地区常见的侵蚀过程。这种风力与流水对同一侵蚀对象(区域)的共同作用或交替作用塑造了风蚀水蚀交错区特有的侵蚀地貌景观。作为一个相互联系、影响的复杂系统,风水复合侵蚀具有明显的时空分布特征,其侵蚀过程可以划分为古代过程与现代过程。由于以往的风蚀和水蚀研究相互独立,风水复合侵蚀的研究起步较晚。在研究中存在着尺度转化与研究方法不成熟等问题。对风水复合侵蚀的机理与防治以及土壤复合可蚀性的研究都将成为今后研究中的重点与难点。