Spiritual Forests—A Nature Conservation Model of Ethnic Minority Communities in Central Viet Nam

This paper aims to analyze and evaluate a model of forest conservation and management of ethnic minority (or indigenous) people in central Vietnam, often referred to as the spiritual forest. These forests, called sacred forest or ghost forests by the ethnic minority people in Thua Thien Hue province, have existed for a long time among forest residents. However, they have recently declined, both in quality and quantity, due to various factors, including changes in society, economy, environment, and perception, among other reasons. Based on research conducted in A Luoi district, Thua Thien Hue province with household interviews, group discussions, and field surveys, we find that spiritual forest retains religious and human significance. They are also often among the last remaining natural forests left due to deforestation by human activities. The research results indicate challenges that conservation of spiritual forest may face, while giving recommendations derived from communities for sustainable forest development and conservation in the region.

Main Principles and Methods of Identification of High Conservation Value Forests in the Conditions of Mountainous Relief： Case of Armenia

Armenia is a small mountainous country with remarkable biodiversity. The forest cover of Armenia makes up 11.17% of the total territory of Armenia. The forests of Armenia make important habitat for numerous biological objects. They also provide important ecosystem services, including key services to forest adjacent population. Deforestation and forest degradation are serious threats in Armenia. In the result of special studies the principles and criteria for identification of HCVFs （high conservation value forests） in the conditions of Armenia were developed. They are based on the guidelines for identification and management of HCVFs, but adapted to the conditions of mountainous forests of Armenia as a small country. Out of six generic types of HCVFs, it is suggested to define five types of HCVFs with respective sub-types. Proper protection of such forests shall ensure conservation of biological diversity and maintenance of ecosystem services provided by forests.

Using modified Soil Conservation Service curve number method to simulate the role of forest in flood control in the upper reach of the Tingjiang River in China

To improve flood control efficiency and increase urban resilience to flooding,the impacts of forest type change on flood control in the upper reach of the Tingjiang River(URTR) were evaluated by a modified model based on the Soil Conservation Service curve number(SCS-CN) method. Parameters of the model were selected and determined according to the comprehensive analysis of model evaluation indexes. The first simulation of forest reconstruction scenario,namely a coniferous forest covering 59.35km^2 is replaced by a broad-leaved forest showed no significant impact on the flood reduction in the URTR. The second simulation was added with 61.75km^2 bamboo forest replaced by broad-leaved forest,the reduction of flood peak discharge and flood volume could be improved significantly. Specifically,flood peak discharge of 10-year return period event was reduced to 7-year event,and the reduction rate of small flood was 21%-28%. Moreover,the flood volume was reduced by 9%-14% and 18%-35% for moderate floods and small floods,respectively. The resultssuggest that the bamboo forest reconstruction is an effective control solution for small to moderate flood in the URTR,the effect of forest conversion on flood volume is increasingly reduced as the rainfall amount increases to more extreme magnitude. Using a hydrological model with scenarios analysis is an effective simulation approach in investigating the relationship between forest type change and flood control. This method would provide reliable support for flood control and disaster mitigation in mountainous cities.

Comparative Research on Zoning of High Conservation Value Forest and Ecological Forest

High conservation value forest(HCVF) theory has aroused wide concerns among related forestry sectors in China,but the zoning and identification of HCVF only have been implemented in a few forest management units(FMUs). As there is no quantitative indicator for identifying and zoning HCVF in China,most FMUs are unable to have an exact zoning result. This paper introduced the concepts of HCVF and ecological forest,and compared their similarities and differences in terms of identification criteria,zoning methods and application scope. With four Chinese FMUs as case studies,some suggestions were proposed for establishing a zoning scheme of HCVF so as to promote the development of HCVF in China.

Impact of regional human capital and urban sprawl on forest——based on a forest conservation model

Metropolitan cities in China have become a major economic hubs with an unprecedented increase of land use and decline of environmental resources. Based on a simple and abstract forest conservation model, this paper attempts to explain changes of forest resources caused by urban sprawl. Through the research, it is found that high level of regional human capital is beneficial to curb urban sprawl. In this vein the model presents the urban forest conservation cost strategy at the Nash equilibrium of varied discount factor and parameter control.

The Role of “Long Forest” Belief of the Dai Nationality in the Conservation of Forest Resources: A Case Study of Manjingchengzi Village in Xishuangbanna

The core of"Long Forest"belief of the Dai nationality is to protect natural forests and forests for conservation of water supply as the home of ancestral gods of the nation and to maintain the ecological balance by means of"Long Forest"worship,"Long Forest"taboo,the traditional customary law,and village regulation and non-governmental agreement.This paper takes Manjingchengzi Village in Xishuangbanna as an example to analyze the distribution of forest land in different periods over the past 60 years and explore the role of"Long Forest"belief in the conservation of local forest resources in a view to providing a frame of reference for regional ecological environment protection.

Analysis of the Estonian Forest Conservation Area Network

Estonian Forestry Development Programme set in 2003 ambitious goal that area of strictly protected forests should increase at least to 10% from total forest area in Estonia before 2010 by expanding the area of old-growth under protection, improving the representativeness of conservation areas and establishment of large conservation sites. Inventory of forests was carried out on existing and possible new conservation areas within the Estonian Forest Conservation Area Network project （EFCAN） in 1999-2001. EFCAN project had remarkable results. The share of strictly protected forests has increased to 7.8% of total forest area by 2009 and the network of conservation areas is quite well covering all forest ecosystems in Estonia. Several selected areas are still not protected for different reasons. These areas should still be considered for protection as the areas may lose their conservation value. Several forest types （meso-eutrophic, eutrophic boreo-nemoral and eutrophic paludifying forests） should have larger area for conservation and large disturbance areas （wind damage, forest fire） should be also included into the network.

Local People＇s Perception of Forest Resources Conservation in Ekiti State, Nigeria

This study examines local people＇s perception of forest resources （FR） conservation around two plantation forest reserves （PFR） and two natural forest reserves （NFR） in Ekiti State in order to determine the factors that can contribute to sustainable FR conservation. Questionnaire and interview were used to collect data from 240 respondents. Data were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. 75.0% and 86.1% of respondents around PFR recognized the importance of conserving the FR for economic benefits and biodiversity respectively, while 66.7% would not want the FR conserved for cultural values. 82.9% of respondents around NFR would want the FR conserved for economic benefits, while 74.3% and 66.7% would not want the forest conserved for cultural values and biodiversity respectively. For efficient conservation, participation in forest management and involvement in decision making with means of 3.45 and 3.52 ranked highest in PFR and NFR respectively. Probit regression analysis showed that in PFR and NFR, age, education and income were positively significant to FR conservation （p 〈 0.05）. Creating an enabling environment that will make local people appreciate historical cultural values of the forest for tourism is essential for efficient FR conservation in the study area.

The Role of Sports Diplomacy in Advancing Environmental Security in Africa: Case of Forest Conservation in Kenya

Environmental security remains a key challenge in the late 19th through to the 21st century,whose solution has attracted a number of initiatives.Sports diplomacy has achieved great strides in achieving international,regional,and local unity.However,the use of sports diplomacy in achieving environmental security has received much less research attention.This research examines the role of sports in diplomacy in achieving environmental security in Kenya.This study was anchored on the soft power theory and Conservation of Resources(COR)theory which offer frameworks for explaining the role of sports diplomacy in advancing environmental security.The study adopted exploratory research design.The target population was diplomats,marathoners,coaches,environmentalists,conservationists and government officials,academia as well as Water Resources Authority(WRA).The primary data were obtained through open and closed structured questionnaire.The collected data were analyzed through the use of frequency distribution,and thematic analysis.The study established that sports diplomacy advanced environmental security in Kenya,which was better for athletics and volleyball.Environmental security was also enhanced through training,sensitization,conservation efforts,and environmental education.Sport events also allowed a contact-platform for interaction between various groups involved in environment and forest conservation.This study recommends that sports diplomacy should be used in most of the regions in Kenya experiencing environmental perturbations and the current strategies should be applied in the sports diplomacy and environmental conservation as well as security.Further,the government is also encouraged to appoint more sports ambassadors with proper environmental knowledge to help in environmental management.The role of academicians in sports diplomacy and environmental security was found to be minimal where academicians should be at the forefront as the 21st century diplomats are incorporated into sports to be local ambassadors.Perceiving the significance of sports diplomacy and environmental security,there is need for coordination between various county governments to coordinate their efforts and in the process they should bring on board even the non sports actors to boost the role of sports in diplomacy and environment.

Conceptual models of forest dynamics in environmental education and management:keep it as simple as possible,but no simpler

Background：Conceptual models of forest dynamics are powerful cognitive tools,which are indispensable for communicating ecological ideas and knowledge,and in developing strategic approaches and setting targets for forest conservation,restoration and sustainable management.Forest development through time is conventionally described as a directional,or ＂linear＂,and predictable sequence of stages from ＂bare ground＂ to old forest representing the ＂climax-state＂.However,this simple view is incompatible with the current knowledge and understanding of intrinsic variability of forest dynamics.Hypothesis：Overly simple conceptual models of forest dynamics easily become transformed into biased mental models of how forests naturally develop and what kind of structures they display.To be able to communicate the essential features and diversity of forest dynamics,comprehensive conceptual models are needed.For this end,Kuuluvainen（2009） suggested a relatively simple conceptual model of forest dynamics,which separates three major modes of forest dynamics,and incorporates state changes and transitions between the forest dynamics modes depending on changes in disturbance regime.Conclusions：Conceptual models of forest dynamics should be comprehensive enough to incorporate both longterm directional change and short-term cyclic forest dynamics,as well as transitions from one dynamics mode to another depending on changes in the driving disturbance regime type.Models that capture such essential features of forest dynamics are indispensable for educational purposes,in setting reference conditions and in developing methods in forest conservation,restoration and ecosystem management.

The influence of canopy-layer composition on understory plant diversity in southern temperate forests

Background： Understory plants represents the largest component of biodiversity in most forest ecosystems and plays a key role in forest functioning.Despite their importance, the influence of overstory-layer composition on understory plant diversity is relatively poorly understood within deciduous-evergreen broadleaved mixed forests.The aim of this work was to evaluate how tree overstory-layer composition influences on understory-layer diversity in three forest types（monospecific deciduous Nothofagus pumilio（Np）, monospecific evergreen Nothofagus betuloides（Nb）, and mixed N.pumilio-N.betuloides（M） forests）, comparing also between two geographical locations（coast and mountain） to estimate differences at landscape level.Results： We recorded 46 plant species： 4 ferns, 12 monocots, and 30 dicots.Canopy-layer composition influences the herb-layer structure and diversity in two different ways： while mixed forests have greater similarity to evergreen forests in the understory structural features, deciduous and mixed were similar in terms of the specific composition of plant assemblage.Deciduous pure stands were the most diverse, meanwhile evergreen stands were least diverse.Lack of exclusive species of mixed forest could represent a transition where evergreen and deciduous communities meet and integrate.Moreover, landscape has a major influence on the structure, diversity and richness of understory vegetation of pure and mixed forests likely associated to the magnitude and frequency of natural disturbances, where mountain forest not only had highest herb-layer diversity but also more exclusive species.Conclusions： Our study suggests that mixed Nothofagus forest supports coexistence of both pure deciduous and pure evergreen understory plant species and different assemblages in coastal and mountain sites.Maintaining the mixture of canopy patch types within mixed stands will be important for conserving the natural patterns of understory plant composition in southern beech mixed forests.

Characterizing conservative and protective needs of the aridland forests of Sudan

Forests in the aridlands of Sudan are distinctive in nature and require special attention due to the great role they play as a first and last line of defense against southward desertification.Thus,to determine their conservative and protective needs based on current conditions in the Wad Al-Bashir Forest(WF),toward ensuring sustainable forest resources in these areas,we used a systematic field survey,existing and available documents review and key informant interviews(KII),to collect data from 08 December 2017 to 15 May 2018.A severe depletion and changes in the forest tree cover and composition were found during the field survey,where species such as Balanitis aegyptiaca is threatened and invasive species(e.g.,Acacia nubica)have started to dominate.Reviewed documents have credited illegal cutting and agricultural activities for the changes in the forest status,whereas the KII indicated that past and current forest conservative and protective practices(CPPs),where forest clearance for agricultural,grazing,pests and disease control,were not given a deserved consideration as they relate to tree cutting and reforestation practices.Likewise,negligence of the needs of those who depend on the forest and inadequate funds have constrained implementation of some CPPs.Accordingly,on the basis of the results of this study,we recommend that CPPs associated with agriculture,grazing,forest fire,pest and disease control should be a top priority concern of forest authorities.Better financial support,which could be enriched by involving governmental and non-governmental organizations,is also needed to boost CPPs in the WF.Invasive species also need to be cleared and replaced by trees such as A.senegal and B.aegyptiaca that are of economic and environmental value.

Endangered lowland oak forest steppe remnants keep unique bird species richness in Central Hungary

The biodiversity of natural or semi-natural native,old oak woodlands have high conservation importance,especially in landscapes of monocultural forest plantations and arable fields.With a wider variety of microhabitats and foraging sources,such old oak forests can provide essential habitat for native forest bird communities.We conducted a study using bird point counts to compare the forest bird communities of old pedunculate oak(Quercus robur)remnants with native and non-native plantations in central Hungary in a landscape of mostly arable fields,settlements,and monocultural plantations.Avian surveys were carried out in old oak forest remnants,middle-aged oak,white poplar(Populus alba),hybrid poplar(Populus×euramericana),black locust(Robinia pseudoacacia),and pine(Pinus spp.)plantations.Fieldwork has been carried out in nine study sites,where all six habitat types were represented(with a few exceptions),to determine total abundance,species richness,Shannon–Wiener diversity,species evenness,dominant and indicator species,and guild abundances.We found that old oak forest remnants were the most diverse habitats among the studied forest types,while hybrid poplar and pine plantations exhibited the lowest avian biodiversity.The avian guilds most sensitive to the loss of old oak forest remnants were ground foragers,bark foragers,cavity-nesters,residents,and Mediterranean migratory birds.Native habitats were more diverse than non-native plantations.Our results suggest that it is important to conserve all remaining high biodiversity old oak stands and to avoid clear-cutting of monocultural plantations in favour of practices such as mixed-species plantations,longer rotation lengths,or retention forestry.

Stability Comparison of Forest Species Planted in Mosian Plain Aquifer in Ilam Province, Iran

Unsystematic selection and planting of tree seedlings in road borders, forest regeneration, development of parks and green spaces which are incompatible with the given climate zone, is a kind of interference and violation of ecosystem privacy. Therefore, the stability and persistence of species in the forest protection is important for planners of natural resources. Field station of spreading Dehloran aquifer is one of the major forestations in Ilam province. It aimed of protecting the soil and underground water table feeding in hot dry plains of Mosian, which have been planted with native and non-native species. In the present article 100 trees of each species were planted during the years 1998 and 1999 in the station, such as Ziziphus spina-christi, Prosopis juliflora, Eucalyptus camaldulensis and Acacia sp. They were randomly selected and information about this species measured and recorded annually has been used. Finally the data has been analysis; by comparison test to compare the growth and persistence. Results indicate that despite high average in height growth （85.4 cm/year） and relatively large diameter growth （2.43 cm/year）, non-native species of Eucalyptus are not in good condition in terms of viability （36.2 percent） and freshness. On the contrary, the native species of Ziziphus with relatively low in average height and diameter growth （22.64 and 2.28 cm/year respectively） represent a better index of viability （65.4 percent） and freshness.

An Investigation of the Factors That Motivated Illegal Settlements in the Mau Forest, Kenya

The Mau Forest has in the recent past elicited serious political and environmental debates regarding its conservation status, as the forest is fast dwindling and the repercussions felt widely across the country. The forest, regarded as the largest indigenous montane forest in east Africa, has been hard hit by land-use changes mainly extensive and ill-planned human settlements. To save the forest, the government has resorted to forced evictions of the settlers. We sought to understand the drivers and causes for the observed illegal settlements in the Mau Forest. To collect data, we conducted focus group discussions and administered household questionnaires on evictees in the South-West and Eastern Mau. Data were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. The results of the binary logistic regression model indicate that Poverty (p = 0.000), Agricultural production (p = 0.000) and Land Given by Government (p = 0.018) contributed significantly to the prediction of people’s motivation of settling in the Mau Forest. In conclusion, population pressure, laxity in forest law enforcement and insecure land tenure and politics were identified as some of the factors that motivated the observed rise in illegal settlements in Mau Forest. Such information on the factors that led to the illegal settlements in Mau Forest would be useful for forest conservation policy makers and managers. It will be a basis upon which interventions can be undertaken to enhance sustainable forest management in Kenya and beyond.

Tree assemblages and diversity patterns in Tropical Juri Forest,Bangladesh

Juri is a biodiversity-rich primary forest in Bangladesh, which remains ecologically unexplored. We identified tree species and examined the richness, alpha（a）diversity and floristic similarity patterns within the identified communities. Vegetation and environmental data were sampled in 120（0.04 ha） study plots. Tree communities were delimited by two-way indicator species analysis（TWINSPAN）. In total, 78 tree species of 35 families and58 genera were identified. TWINSPAN identified six tree communities： A—Tricalysia singularis; B—Kydia calycina-Castanopsis tribuloides; C—Polyalthia simiarum-Duabanga grandiflora; D—Ficus roxburghii; E—Artocarpus lacucha; F—Artocarpus lacucha. Mean richness, Shannon and Gini-Simpson indices were highest for the Polyalthia simiarum-Duabanga grandiflora community, while Ficus roxburghii showed lowest diversity. Significant differences（p = 0.05） in three diversity indices were recorded between Polyalthia simiarum-Duabanga grandiflora and Ficus roxburghii. Tree compositional similarity was greatest between Kydia calycina-Castanopsis tribuloides and Polyalthia simiarum-Duabanga grandiflora（0.712）.

Eco-pesantren: Islamic Education in Forest Conservation Landscapes

This article examines Islamic boarding schools(pesantren)as traditional Indonesian Islamic educational institutions,showing a new face as agents in nature conserva-tion,especially forest conservation and considering Indonesia as a country with the best tropical forest land in the world and pesantren as indigenous Islamic educa-tional institutions owned by Indonesia.This study finds pesantren as the landscape of a forest conservation movement started by the Al-Ittifaq pesantren and the Ecope-santren community.By focusing on the eco-centric paradigm where Islamic teach-ings teach the concept of forest conservation,this concept is rarely taught in tra-ditional Islamic educational institutions such as pesantren.The results found that the eco-pesantren model was created by integrating religious education and ecolog-ical conceptions of dialectical qauliyah and kauniyah verses through the involve-ment of community alliances.Kyai's leadership behaviour is a key factor where all three(meditation,mediation,and reflection)are formed based on the two powers of authority in Weber's tripartite(legal-formal and transformational).This study con-tributes that Islamic education is a religious institution that teaches forest conser-vation movements through an eco-pesantren format.This research contributes that pesantren can synergise religion and forest conservation movements through the eco-pesantrenformat.

Variable retention harvesting: conceptual analysis according to different environmental ethics and forest valuation

Background:Conceptual clarity is important to attain precise communication of scientific knowledge and to implement appropriate technological and policy actions.Many concepts referring to forest management are widely used by decision-makers,regardless of their complexity.Although the scientific and methodological issues of forestry practices are frequently discussed in the literature,their normative dimensions are rarely treated.Thus,linguistic uncertainty increases when different environmentally ethical perspectives and ways of valuing forests are considered.The objective was to compare different conceptualizations on the silvicultural systems suggested for forest management and the implications they have for conservation.We have conceptually contrasted highintensity forestry practices with variable retention harvesting,considering different environmentally ethical perspectives and forest valuation alternatives.Results:Clear boundaries between clear-cutting,selective logging,and variable retention harvesting can be evidenced when different ethical points of view and alternatives in the human-nature relationships are considered.We have found a variety of definitions of variable retention harvesting that can be analyzed under different ethical positions.Sharply contrasting views on variable retention harvesting can be evidenced if nature is considered to be purely at human’s service or if it is conceptualized as humans co-inhabiting with nature.The latter position implies that the maintenance of ecological,evolutionary,and historical processes supported by unmanaged forest stands is a crucial step for forest management proposals based on variable retention harvesting.Conclusions:Forestry practices that are focused on forest yields and that misinterpret functional uncertainty of forest functioning would be risky.Moreover,forestry with variable retention harvesting could imply good yields with reasonable conservation management in some contexts,while it could be unacceptable in other socioecological contexts.The improvement of conceptual clarity on the different meanings of variable retention harvesting and the development of indicators for forest management based on the variations of this concept can reduce controversies.