A low-noise X-band microwave source with digital automatic frequency control for electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy

We report a new design of microwave source for X-band electron paramagnetic resonance spectrometer.The microwave source is equipped with a digital automatic frequency control circuit.The parameters of the digital automatic frequency control circuit can be flexibly configured for different experimental conditions,such as the input powers or the quality factors of the resonator.The configurability makes the microwave source universally compatible and greatly extends its application.To demonstrate the ability of adapting to various experimental conditions,the microwave source is tested by varying the input powers and the quality factors of the resonator.A satisfactory phase noise as low as-135 d Bc/Hz at 100-k Hz offset from the center frequency is achieved,due to the use of a phase-locked dielectric resonator oscillator and a direct digital synthesizer.Continuous-wave electron paramagnetic resonance experiments are conducted to examine the performance of the microwave source.The outstanding performance shows a prospect of wide applications of the microwave source in numerous fields of science.

Distributed Model Predictive Load Frequency Control of Multi-area Power System with DFIGs

Reliable load frequency control(LFC) is crucial to the operation and design of modern electric power systems. Considering the LFC problem of a four-area interconnected power system with wind turbines, this paper presents a distributed model predictive control(DMPC) based on coordination scheme.The proposed algorithm solves a series of local optimization problems to minimize a performance objective for each control area. The generation rate constraints(GRCs), load disturbance changes, and the wind speed constraints are considered. Furthermore, the DMPC algorithm may reduce the impact of the randomness and intermittence of wind turbine effectively. A performance comparison between the proposed controller with and without the participation of the wind turbines is carried out. Analysis and simulation results show possible improvements on closed–loop performance, and computational burden with the physical constraints.

Finite Frequency Fuzzy H∞Control for Uncertain Active Suspension Systems With Sensor Failure

This paper investigates the problem of finite frequency fuzzy H_∞ control for uncertain active vehicle suspension systems, in which sensor failure is taken into account. TakagiSugeno(T-S) fuzzy model is established for considered suspension systems. In order to describe the sensor fault effectively, a corresponding model is introduced. A vital performance index,H_∞ performance, is utilized to measure the drive comfort. In the framework of Kalman-Yakubovich-Popov theory, the H_∞ norm from external perturbation to controlled output is optimized effectively in the frequency domain of 4 Hz-8 Hz to enhance ride comfort level. Meanwhile, three suspension constrained requirements, i.e., ride comfort level, manipulation stability,suspension deflection are also guaranteed. Furthermore, sufficient conditions are developed to design a fuzzy controller to guarantee the desired performance of active suspension systems. Finally, the proposed control scheme is applied to a quarter-vehicle active suspension, and simulation results are given to illustrate the effectiveness of the proposed approach.

Robust H_∞ Load Frequency Control of Multi-area Power System With Time Delay:A Sliding Mode Control Approach

This paper is devoted to investigate the robust H∞sliding mode load frequency control(SMLFC) of multi-area power system with time delay. By taking into account stochastic disturbances induced by the integration of renewable energies,a new sliding surface function is constructed to guarantee the fast response and robust performance, then the sliding mode control law is designed to guarantee the reach ability of the sliding surface in a finite-time interval. The sufficient robust frequency stabilization result for multi-area power system with time delay is presented in terms of linear matrix inequalities(LMIs). Finally,a two-area power system is provided to illustrate the usefulness and effectiveness of the obtained results.

Neural-Network-Based Terminal Sliding Mode Control for Frequency Stabilization of Renewable Power Systems

This paper addresses a terminal sliding mode control(T-SMC) method for load frequency control(LFC) in renewable power systems with generation rate constraints(GRC).A two-area interconnected power system with wind turbines is taken into account for simulation studies. The terminal sliding mode controllers are assigned in each area to achieve the LFC goal. The increasing complexity of the nonlinear power system aggravates the effects of system uncertainties. Radial basis function neural networks(RBF NNs) are designed to approximate the entire uncertainties. The terminal sliding mode controllers and the RBF NNs work in parallel to solve the LFC problem for the renewable power system. Some simulation results illustrate the feasibility and validity of the presented scheme.

Addressing Frequency Control Challenges in Future Low-Inertia Power Systems:A Great Britain Perspective

The ambitious global targets on decarbonization present the need for massive integration of renewable generation in power systems,resulting in a significant decrease in the system inertia.In addition to the reduction in system inertia,the transmission system in Great Britain(GB)faces some unique challenges owing to its relatively small capacity,while being decoupled from other transmission systems and with the renewable resources largely non-uniformly distributed across the system.This paper presents opinions and insights on the challenges associated with frequency control in a low-inertia system and the potential solutions from a GB perspective.In this paper,we focus on three main techniques that act over different time scales:synchronous condensers,inertia emulation,and fast frequency response.We evaluate their relative advantages and limitations with learnings from recent research and development projects in GB,along with the opinions on their roles in addressing the frequency control challenges in future low-inertia systems.

Multi-objective optimization for voltage and frequency control of smart grids based on controllable loads

The output uncertainty of high-proportion distributed power generation severely affects the system voltage and frequency.Simultaneously,controllable loads have also annually increased,which markedly improve the capability for nodal-power control.To maintain the system frequency and voltage magnitude around rated values,a new multi-objective optimization model for both voltage and frequency control is proposed.Moreover,a great similarity between the multiobjective optimization and game problems appears.To reduce the strong subjectivity of the traditional methods,the idea and method of the game theory are introduced into the solution.According to the present situational data and analysis of the voltage and frequency sensitivities to nodal-power variations,the design variables involved in the voltage and frequency control are classified into two strategy spaces for players using hierarchical clustering.Finally,the effectiveness and rationality of the proposed control are verified in MATLAB.

Load Frequency Control of Multi-interconnected Renewable Energy Plants Using Multi-Verse Optimizer

A reliable approach based on a multi-verse optimization algorithm(MVO)for designing load frequency control incorporated in multi-interconnected power system comprising wind power and photovoltaic(PV)plants is presented in this paper.It has been applied for optimizing the control parameters of the load frequency controller(LFC)of the multi-source power system(MSPS).The MSPS includes thermal,gas,and hydro power plants for energy generation.Moreover,the MSPS is integrated with renewable energy sources(RES).The MVO algorithm is applied to acquire the ideal parameters of the controller for controlling a single area and a multi-area MSPS integrated with RES.HVDC link is utilized in shunt with AC multi-areas interconnection tie line.The proposed scheme has achieved robust performance against the disturbance in loading conditions,variation of system parameters,and size of step load perturbation(SLP).Meanwhile,the simulation outcomes showed a good dynamic performance of the proposed controller.

Decentralized Resilient H_∞Load Frequency Control for Cyber-Physical Power Systems Under DoS Attacks

This paper designs a decentralized resilient H_(∞)load frequency control(LFC)scheme for multi-area cyber-physical power systems(CPPSs).Under the network-based control framework,the sampled measurements are transmitted through the communication networks,which may be attacked by energylimited denial-of-service(DoS)attacks with a characterization of the maximum count of continuous data losses(resilience index).Each area is controlled in a decentralized mode,and the impacts on one area from other areas via their interconnections are regarded as the additional load disturbance of this area.Then,the closed-loop LFC system of each area under DoS attacks is modeled as an aperiodic sampled-data control system with external disturbances.Under this modeling,a decentralized resilient H_(∞)scheme is presented to design the state-feedback controllers with guaranteed H∞performance and resilience index based on a novel transmission interval-dependent loop functional method.When given the controllers,the proposed scheme can obtain a less conservative H_(∞)performance and resilience index that the LFC system can tolerate.The effectiveness of the proposed LFC scheme is evaluated on a one-area CPPS and two three-area CPPSs under DoS attacks.

A Novel Resonant Frequency Tracking Control for Linear Compressor Based on MRAS Method

To optimize the efficiency of the linear compressor,its operating frequency must be controlled equal to the system resonant frequency.The traditional resonant frequency tracking control algorithm relies on the steady state characteristics of the system,which suffers from slow convergence speed,low accuracy and slow system response.In order to solve these problems,a novel resonant frequency tracking control for linear compressor based on model reference adaptive system(MRAS)is proposed in this paper,and the parameter adaptive rate is derived by the Popov's hyperstability theory,so that the system resonant frequency can be directly calculated through the parameter adaptive rate.Furthermore,the traditional algorithm needs to calculate the piston stroke signal by integrating the back-EMF,which has the problem of integral drift.The algorithm proposed in this paper only needs the velocity signal,and the accuracy of the velocity calculation can be ensured by utilizing the self-adaptive band-pass filter(SABPF),thereby greatly improving the accuracy of the resonance frequency calculation.Simulation results verify the effectiveness of the proposed algorithm.

Load Frequency Control of Small Hydropower Plants Using One-Input Fuzzy PI Controller with Linear and Non-Linear Plant Model

This study presents an intelligent approach for load frequency control (LFC) of small hydropower plants (SHPs). The approach which is based on fuzzy logic (FL), takes into account the non-linearity of SHPs—something which is not possible using traditional controllers. Most intelligent methods use two- input fuzzy controllers, but because such controllers are expensive, there is economic interest in the relatively cheaper single-input controllers. A non- linear control model based on one-input fuzzy logic PI (FLPI) controller was developed and applied to control the non-linear SHP. Using MATLAB/Si- mulink SimScape, the SHP was simulated with linear and non-linear plant models. The performance of the FLPI controller was investigated and compared with that of the conventional PI/PID controller. Results show that the settling time for the FLPI controller is about 8 times shorter;while the overshoot is about 15 times smaller compared to the conventional PI/PID controller. Therefore, the FLPI controller performs better than the conventional PI/PID controller not only in meeting the LFC control objective but also in ensuring increased dynamic stability of SHPs.

Distributed demand side management via smart appliances contributing to frequency control

Nowadays renewable energy has become a trend for energy production but its variable nature has made balancing of demand and supply of the power grid difficult. Dynamic demand management using smart appliances is proposed to serve as a way that part of the regulation burden of balancing demand and supply is shifted to the demand side. However, if all appliances respond to the same frequency deviation, they may start to synchronize, causing large power overshoots and instability of the power grid. Therefore, the idea of implementing randomness into the frequency control of the appliances is proposed and this is what we call a stochastic approach. Simulators are built from scratch to model both scenarios. The effect of synchronization is analyzed and the parameters that can affect the synchronization are investigated. It has been found that the larger the contribution from the smart appliances to the power grid, the easier and faster the synchronization takes place. The stochastic approach solves the problem of synchronization and averages out the large power overshoot. However, the overall performance of stochastic operations is unacceptable due to the randomness in the operation though the mean and variance are as expected. More advanced feedback policies and schemes may be designed to achieve a better performance.

Bilateral Contract for Load Frequency and Renewable Energy Sources Using Advanced Controller

Reestablishment in power system brings in significant transformation in the power sector by extinguishing the possession of sound consolidated assistance.However,the collaboration of various manufacturing agencies,autonomous power manufacturers,and buyers have created complex installation processes.The regular active load and inefficiency of best measures among varied associates is a huge hazard.Any sudden load deviation will give rise to immediate amendment in frequency and tie-line power errors.It is essential to deal with every zone’s frequency and tie-line power within permitted confines followed by fluctuations within the load.Therefore,it can be proficient by implementing Load Frequency Control under the Bilateral case,stabilizing the power and frequency distinction within the interrelated power grid.Balancing the net deviation in multiple areas is possible by minimizing the unbalance of Bilateral Contracts with the help of proportional integral and advanced controllers like Harris Hawks Optimizer.We proposed the advanced controller Harris Hawk optimizer-based model and validated it on a test bench.The experiment results show that the delay time is 0.0029 s and the settling time of 20.86 s only.This model can also be leveraged to examine the decision boundaries of the Bilateral case.

Coefficient Diagram Method Based Load Frequency Control for a Modern Power System

increasing penetration of renewable energy sources with a wide range of operating conditions causing power system uncertainties, conventional controllers are incapable of providing proper performance to keep the system stable. However, controllable or dispatchable loads such as electric vehicles （EVs） and heat pumps （HPs） can be utilized for supplementary frequency control. This paper shows the ability of plug-in hybrid EVs, HPs, and batteries （BTs） to contribute in the frequency control of an isolated power system. Moreover, we propose a new online intelligent approach by using a coefficient diagram method （CDM） to enhance the system performance and robustness against uncertainties. The performance of the proposed intelligent CDM control has been compared with the proportional-integral （PI） controller and the superiority of the proposed scheme has been verified in Matiab/Simulink programs.

Kalman-Filtering-Based Frequency Control Strategy Considering Electrolytic Aluminum Load

Traditional thermal power units are continuously replaced by renewable energies,of which fluctuations and intermittence impose pressure on the frequency stability of the power system.Electrolytic aluminum load(EAL)accounts for large amount of the local electric loads in some areas.The participation of EAL in local frequency control has huge application prospects.However,the controller design of EAL is difficult due to the measurement noise of the system frequency and the nonlinear dynamics of the EAL’s electric power consumption.Focusing on this problem,this paper proposes a control strategy for EAL to participate in the frequency control.For the controller design of the EAL system,the system frequency response model is established and the EAL transfer function model is developed based on the equivalent circuit of EAL.For the problem of load-side frequency measurement error,the frequency estimation method based on Kalman-filtering is designed.To improve the performance of EAL in the frequency control,a fuzzy EAL controller is designed.The testing examples show that the designed Kalman-filter has good performance in de-noising the measured frequency,and the designed fuzzy controller has better performance in stabilizing system frequency than traditional methods.

High-Resolution Rb Two-Photon Transition Spectroscopy by a Femtosecond Frequency Comb via Pulses Control

We experimentally observe the high resolution direct frequency comb spectroscopy using counter-propagating broadband femtosecond pulses on two-photon transitions in room-temperature ^87 Rb atoms. The Doppler broad- ened background is effectively eliminated with the pulse shaping method and the spectrum modulation technique. The combination of the pulse shaping method and the spectra modulation technique provides a potential approachto reduce background of at least 99%.

Direct Digital Frequency Control Based on the Phase Step Change Characteristic between Signals

We present a new digital phase lock technology to achieve the frequency control and transformation through high precision multi-cycle group synchronization between signals without the frequency transformation circuit. In the case of digital sampling, the passing zero point of the phase of the controlled signal has the phase step characteristic, the phase step of the passing zero point is monotonic continuous with high resolution in the phase lock process, and using the border effect of digital fuzzy area, the gate can synchronize with the two signals, the quantization error is reduced. This technique is quite different from the existing methods of frequency transformation and frequency synthesis, the phase change characteristic between the periodic signals with different nominal is used. The phase change has the periodic phenomenon, and it has the high resolution step value. With the application of the physical law, the noise is reduced because of simplifying frequency transformation circuits, and the phase is locked with high precision. The regular phase change between frequency signals is only used for frequency measurement, and the change has evident randomness, but this randomness is greatly reduced in frequency control, and the certainty of the process result is clear. The experiment shows that the short term frequency stability can reach 10-12/s orders of magnitude.

Frequency detection of self-adaption control based on chaotic theory

Low-order Duffing and high-order Rossler chaotic oscillator are connected together and new self-adaption frequency detection method is presented. The frequency difference control between unknown signal and the periodic driving force is realized in this paper and the self-adaption is obtained. Thus, the detection precision and speed are promoted. The limitation that there are too many chaotic oscillators in Duffing system is broken. Meanwhile the disadvantage that the detection speed is lower in R ssler chaotic control is overcome. The self-adaption choice of frequency difference control is realized using the Duffing and Rssler different chaotic oscillators to obtain unknown signal frequency. The simulation results show that the presented method is feasible and effective.

Application of Frequency Control Technique to a Rotary Drill

The scheme of a frequency control system in a rotary drill is established by integrating a converter and a programmable logic controller （ PLC ）. The principle of speed regulation, characters of speed-up and speed-down, and the mechanical running performance are also analyzed. The result of application indicates that the frequency control system excellently solves the problems of start, stop, and speed regulation of the drill. The equipment maintenance workload and cost are thus reduced.

Hybrid Fuzzy Controller Based Frequency Regulation in Restructured Power System

This paper discusses the implementation of Load Frequency Control (LFC) in restructured power system using Hybrid Fuzzy controller. The formulation of LFC in open energy market is much more challenging;hence it needs an intelligent controller to adapt the changes imposed by the dynamics of restructured bilateral contracts. Fuzzy Logic Control deals well with uncertainty and indistinctness while Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) is a well-known optimization tool. Abovementioned techniques are combined and called as Hybrid Fuzzy to improve the dynamic performance of the system. Frequency control of restructured system has been achieved by automatic Membership Function (MF) tuned fuzzy logic controller. The parameters defining membership function has been tuned and updated from time to time using Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO). The robustness of the proposed hybrid fuzzy controller has been compared with conventional fuzzy logic controller using performance measures like overshoot and settling time following a step load perturbation. The motivation for using membership function tuning using PSO is to show the behavior of the controller for a wide range of system parameters and load changes. Error based analysis with parametric uncertainties and load changes is tested on a two-area restructured power system.