Introducing a 2nd Universal Space-Time Constant Can Explain the Observed Age of the Universe and Dark Energy

The purpose of this paper is to introduce new theoretical concepts as opposed to accepting the existence of dark entities, such as dark energy. This research sought to introduce a 2nd universal space-time constant, besides having a finite speed constant (speed of light in vacuum c). A finite universal age constant b is introduced. Namely, this paper shows that the changes in the Earth’s anomalistic year duration over time support the hypothesis of the age of the universe correlating with a maximum number of orbital revolutions constant. Neglecting the gravitational influence of other cosmological entities in the proximity of the Earth, the constant maximum number of revolutions is herewith determined solely by the Earth’s orbital revolutions around the Sun. The value of the universal age constant b is calculated to be around 13.8 billion orbital revolutions, derived out of an equation related to the changes in the Earth’s anomalistic year duration over time and the so-called Hubble tension. The above-mentioned calculated value b correlates well with the best fit to measured data of the cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR) by the Planck spacecraft, the age of the observed universe is measured to be approximately 13.787 ± 0.020 billion years (2018 final data release). Developing a theory with this 2nd universal space-time constant b, being covariant with respect to the Lorentz transformations when time spans are large, gives results such as: A confirmation of the measured CMBR value of 13.787 ± 0.020 billion years. Correlating well with the observed expansion rate of the universe (dark energy). The universe’s expansion accelerating over the last four to five billion years.

Cosmological parameters for spatially flat dust filled Universe in Brans-Dicke theory

We have investigated late time acceleration for a spatially fiat dust filled Universe in Brans- Dicke theory in the presence of a positive cosmological constant A. Expressions for Hubble＇s constant, luminosity distance and apparent magnitude have been obtained for our model. The theoretical results are compared with observed values of the latest 287 high redshift （0.3 ≤ z ≤1.4） Type Ia supernova data taken from the Union 2.1 compilation to estimate present values of matter and dark energy parame- ters, （Ωm）0 and （ΩA）0. We have also estimated the present value of Hubble＇s constant H0 in light of an updated sample of Hubble parameter measurements including 19 independent data points. The results are found to be in good agreement with recent astrophysical observations. We also calculated various physical parameters such as matter and dark energy densities, present age of the Universe and decelera- tion parameter. The value for Brans-Dicke-coupling constant ω is set to be 40 000 based on accuracy of solar system tests and recent experimental evidence.

Mass of the Universe from Quarks: A Plausible Solution to the Cosmological Constant Problem

A framework to estimate the mass of the universe from quarks is presented, taking spacetime into account. This is a link currently missing in our understanding of physics/science. The focus on mass-energy balance is aimed at finding a solution to the Cosmological Constant (CC) problem by attempting to quantize space-time and linking the vacuum energy density at the beginning of the universe and the current energy density. The CC problem is the famous disagreement of approximately 120 orders of magnitude between the theoretical energy density at the Planck scale and the indirectly measured cosmological energy density. Same framework is also used to determine the mass of the proton and neutron from first principles. The only input is the up quark (u-quark) mass, or precisely, the 1st generation quarks. The method assumes that the u-quark is twice as massive as the down-quark (d-quark). The gap equation is the starting point, introduced in its simplest form. The main idea is to assume that all the particles and fields in the unit universe are divided into quarks and everything else. Everything else means all fields and forces present in the universe. It is assumed that everything else can be “quark-quantized”;that is, assume that they can be quantized into similar sizeable u-quarks and/or it’s associated interactions and relations. The result is surprisingly almost as measured and known values. The proton structure and mass composition are also analysed, showing that it likely has more than 3 quarks and more than 3 valence quarks. It is also possible to estimate the percentage of dark matter, dark energy, ordinary matter, and anti-matter. Finally, the cosmological constant problem or puzzle is resolved by connecting the vacuum energy density of Quantum Field Theory (5.1E+96 kg/m3) and the energy density of General Relativity (1.04E−26 kg/m3). Upon maturation, this framework can serve as a bridging platform between Quantum Field Theory and General Relativity. Other aspects of natures’ field theories can be successfully ported to the platform. It also increases the chances of solving some of the unanswered questions in physics.

The Tension Cosmology, Largest Cosmic Structures and Explosions of Supernovae from SST

Here, using the Scale-Symmetric Theory (SST) we explain the cosmological tension and the origin of the largest cosmic structures. We show that a change in value of strong coupling constant for cold baryonic matter leads to the disagreement in the galaxy clustering amplitude, quantified by the parameter S8. Within the same model we described the Hubble tension. We described also the mechanism that transforms the gravitational collapse into an explosion—it concerns the dynamics of virtual fields that lead to dark energy. Our calculations concern the Type Ia supernovae and the core-collapse supernovae. We calculated the quantized masses of the progenitors of supernovae, emitted total energy during explosion, and we calculated how much of the released energy was transferred to neutrinos. Value of the speed of sound in the strongly interacting matter measured at the LHC confirms that presented here model is correct. Our calculations show that the Universe is cyclic.

An Alternative to Dark Matter? Part 1: The Early Universe (<i>t_p</i>to 10^-9s), Energy Creation the Alphaton, Baryogenesis

A cosmological model was developed using the equation of state of photon gas, as well as cosmic time. The primary objective of this model is to see if determining the observed rotation speed of galactic matter is possible, without using dark matter (halo) as a parameter. To do so, a numerical application of the evolution of variables in accordance with cosmic time and a new state equation was developed to determine precise, realistic values for a number of cosmological parameters, such as the energy of the universe U, cosmological constant Λ, the curvature of space k, energy density ρΛe, age of the universe tΩ etc. The development of the state equation highlights the importance of not neglecting any of the differential terms given the very large amounts in play that can counterbalance the infinitesimals. Some assumptions were put forth in order to solve these equations. The current version of the model partially explains several of the observed phenomena that raise questions. Numerical application of the model has yielded the following results, among others: Initially, during the Planck era, at the very beginning of Planck time, tp, the universe contained a single photon at Planck temperature TP, almost Planck energy EP in the Planck volume. During the photon inflation phase (before characteristic time ~10-9 [s]), the number of original photons (alphatons) increased at each unit of Planck time tp and geometrical progression~n3, where n is the quotient of cosmic time over Planck time t/tp. Then, the primordial number of photons reached a maximum of N~1089, where it remained constant. These primordial photons (alphatons) are still present today and represent the essential of the energy contained in the universe via the cosmological constant expressed in the form of energy EΛ. Such geometric growth in the number of photons can bring a solution to the horizon problem through γγ exchange and a photon energy volume that is in phase with that of the volume energy of the universe. The predicted total mass (p, n, e, and ν), based on the Maxwell-Juttner relativistic statistical distribution, is ~7 × 1050 [kg]. The predicted cosmic neutrino mass is ≤8.69 × 10-32 [kg] (≤48.7 [keV·c-2]) if based on observations of SN1987A. The temperature variation of the cosmic microwave background (CMB), as measured by Planck, can be said to be partially due to energy variations in the universe (ΔU/U) during the primordial baryon synthesis (energy jump from the creation of protons and neutrons).

Observational constraints on the accelerating universe in the framework of a 5D bounce cosmological model

In the framework of a five-dimensional （5D） bounce cosmological model, a useful function f（z） is obtained by giving a concrete expression of deceleration parameter q（z） = q1 ＋q2/1＋1n（1＋z） Then using the obtained Hubble parameter H（z） according to the function f（z）, we constrain the accelerating universe from recent cosmic observations： the 192 ESSENCE SNe Ia and the 9 observational H（z） data. The best fitting values of transition redshift zT and current deceleration parameter q0 are given as zT =0.65-0.12^＋0.25 and q0=-0.76-0.15^＋0.15（1σ）. Furthermore, in the 5D bounce model it can be seen that the evolution of equation of state （EOS） for dark energy Wde can cross over -1 at about z = 0.23 and the current value W0de ： =-1.15 〈 -1. On the other hand, by giving a concrete expression of model-independent EOS of dark energy Wde, in the 5D bounce model we obtain the best fitting values zT = 0 .66-0.08^＋0.11 and q0=-0.69-0.10^＋0.10（1σ） from the recently observed data： the 192 ESSENCE SNe Ia, the observational H（z） data, the 3-year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe （WMAP）, the Sloan Digital Sky Survey （SDSS） baryon acoustic peak and the x-ray gas mass fraction in clusters.

Lyra's cosmology of hybrid universe in Bianchi-V space-time

In this paper we have searched for the existence of Lyra’s cosmology in a hybrid universe with minimal interaction between dark energy and normal matter using Bianchi-V space-time. To derive the exact solution, the average scale factor is taken as a =(t~nekt)1/m which describes the hybrid nature of the scale factor and generates a model of the transitioning universe from the early deceleration phase to the present acceleration phase. The quintessence model makes the matter content of the derived universe remarkably able to satisfy the null, dominant and strong energy condition. It has been found that the time varying displacement β(t) co-relates with the nature of cosmological constant Λ(t). We also discuss some physical and geometrical features of the universe.

Oscillating Flat FRW Dark Energy Dominated Cosmology from Periodic Functional Approach

我基于一条周期的功能的途径讨论爱因斯坦一般相关性的理论的修正。在这条新途径，一改正的周期的重力的联合常数产生并且起术语对理论起作用的周期的抑制的作用。把震荡的宇宙被黑暗精力统治了是可完成的并且及时 acceleratedly 膨胀，这被发现。

Interacting viscous entropy-corrected holographic scalar field models of dark energy with time-varying G in modified FRW cosmology

We study the entropy-corrected version of the holographic dark energy （HDE） model in the framework of modified Friedmann-Robertson-Walker cosmology. We consider a non-flat universe filled with an interacting viscous entropy-corrected HDE （ECHDE） with dark matter. Also included in our model is the case of the variable gravitational constant G. We obtain the equation of state and the deceleration param- eters of the interacting viscous ECHDE. Moreover, we reconstruct the potential and the dynamics of the quintessence, tachyon, K-essence and dilaton scalar field models according to the evolutionary behavior of the interacting viscous ECHDE model with time-varying G.

New Cosmology: The Global Dynamics of the Higgs Quantum Space and the Accelerated Expansion of the Universe

This work investigates the nature of the empty space and of the energy accelerating expansion of the universe, within the context of the Higgs theory. It is consensus among the cosmologists that dark energy, accelerating the expansion of the universe, is energy of the empty space (vacuum) itself. According to the Higgs theory, empty space (vacuum) is filled up by a real quantum fluid medium, closely analogous to the superconducting condensate, giving mass to the elementary particles by the Higgs mechanism. This spatial medium is the holder of the vacuum energy. Current theories describe the empty space (vacuum) in terms of the stress-energy tensor of a perfect fluid and estimate the vacuum energy density in terms of zero-point energies of the various force fields. They come to the scandalous conclusion that the vacuum energy density is 120 decimal orders of magnitude larger than shown by the observations. In the context of the Higgs theory, empty space, far from a perfect fluid, is a very strongly correlated boson condensate, a perfect quantum fluid ruled by the principles of quantum physics and governed by a powerful order parameter. This order parameter is stabilized by a huge energy gap that, according to the Glashow-Weinberg-Salam electroweak model, achieves more than 200 GeV. This huge energy gap very strongly suppresses the quantum fluctuations and the zero-point energies. This lets clear that estimating the vacuum energy density in terms of the zero-point energies cannot be correct. The expanding universe does not create more and more vacuum energy and does not expand against a negative pressure. The universe is an adiabatic system that conserves the total mass-energy and expansion only reduces the vacuum energy density. Calculations within this context show that the vacuum energy density converges closely to the observed value.

An interacting two-fluid scenario for dark energy in a Bianchi type-I cosmological model

We study the evolution of the dark energy parameter within a Bianchi type-I cosmological model filled with barotropic fluid and dark energy. The solutions have been obtained for power law and exponential forms of the expansion parameter （they correspond to a constant deceleration parameter in general relativity）. After a long time, the models tend to be isotropic under certain conditions.

How Flat Space Cosmology Models Dark Energy

Equations of Flat Space Cosmology (FSC) are utilized to characterize the model’s scalar temporal behavior of dark energy. A table relating cosmic age, cosmological redshift, and the temporal FSC Hubble parameter value is created. The resulting graph of the log of the Hubble parameter as a function of cosmological (or galactic) redshift has a particularly interesting sinuous shape. This graph greatly resembles what ΛCDM proponents have been expecting for a scalar temporal behavior of dark energy. And yet, the FSC Rh = ct model expansion, by definition, neither decelerates nor accelerates. It may well be that apparent early cosmic deceleration and late cosmic acceleration both ultimately prove to be illusions produced by a constant-velocity, linearly-expanding, FSC universe. Furthermore, as discussed herein, the FSC model would appear to strongly support Freedman et al. in the current Hubble tension debate, if approximately 14 Gyrs can be assumed to be the current cosmic age.

Predicting Dark Energy Survey Results Using the Flat Space Cosmology Model

The Flat Space Cosmology (FSC) model is utilized to show how this model predicts the value of the Hubble parameter at each epoch of cosmic expansion. Specific attention in this paper is given to correlating the observable galactic redshifts since the beginning of the “cosmic dawn” reionization epoch. A graph of the log of the Hubble parameter as a function of redshift z is presented as the FSC prediction of the pending Dark Energy Survey results. In the process, it is discovered that the obvious tension between the SHOES local Hubble constant value and the 2018 Planck Survey and the 2018 Dark Energy Survey global Hubble constant values may be explained by a time-variable, scalar, Hubble parameter acting in accordance with the FSC model.

Dynamical Dark Energy in Light of Cosmic Distance Measurements.Ⅰ.A Demonstration Using Simulated Datasets

We develop methods to extract key dark energy information from cosmic distance measurements including the BAO scales and supernova(SN) luminosity distances.Demonstrated using simulated data sets of the complete DESI,LSST and Roman surveys designed for BAO and SN distance measurements,we show that using our method,the dynamical behavior of the energy,pressure,equation of state(with its time derivative) of dark energy and the cosmic deceleration function can all be accurately recovered from high-quality data,which allows for robust diagnostic tests for dark energy models.

Cosmology of a Chaplygin Gas Model Under f(T)Gravity and Evolution of Primordial Perturbations

This paper reports a detailed study of generalized Chaplygin gas(GCG)with power law form of scale factor and truncated form of the scale factor using binomial expansion in both interacting and non-interacting scenarios along with its cosmological consequences,studied in terms of equation of state(EoS)parameter.In the non-interacting scenario,the EoS parameter behaves as quintessence in both forms of the scale factor.In the interacting scenario,the EoS parameter behaves as phantom and for the truncated form of the scale factor,it violates the constraints of the positive parameterα.The cosmological implementation of GCG interacting with pressureless dark matter is investigated in the framework of f(T)modified gravity,where T is the torsion scalar in teleparallelism.The interaction term is directly proportional to the GCG density with positive coupling constant.In f(T)gravity,the EoS is behaving like phantom.The stability of the reconstructed model is investigated and it is found to be stable against small gravitational perturbations,i.e.,the squared speed of sound is non-negative and an increasing function of cosmic time t.We have observed that our reconstructed f(T)model satisfies one of the sufficient conditions of a realistic reconstructed model and it is consistent with the CMB constraints and primordial nucleosynthesis.Cosmology of primordial perturbations has also been analyzed and the self-interacting potential has been found to be an increasing function of cosmic time t.

The Light-Dark Dual Universe for the Big Bang and Dark Energy

In the proposed light-dark dual universe, the light universe is the observable universe with light and kinetic energy that fueled the Big Bang, and the dark universe without light and kinetic energy has been observed as dark energy since about 9 billion years after the Big Bang. The light-dark dual universe started from the zero-energy universe through the four-stage cyclic transformation. Emerging from the zero-energy universe, the four-stage transformation consists of the 11D (dimensional) positive-negative energy dual membrane universe, the 10D positive-negative energy dual string universe, the 10D positive-negative energy dual particle universe, and the 4D (light)-variable D (dark) positive-negative energy dual particle asymmetrical universe. The transformation can then be reversed back to the zero-energy universe through the reverse four-stage transformation. The light universe is an observable four-dimensional universe started with the inflation and the Big Bang, and the dark universe is a variable dimensional universe from 10D to 4D. The dark universe could be observed as dark energy only when the dark universe turned into a four-dimensional universe. The four-stage transformation explains the four force fields in our universe. The theoretical calculated percentages of dark energy, dark matter, and baryonic matter are 72.8. 22.7, and 4.53, respectively, in nearly complete agreement with observed 72.8, 22.7, and 4.56, respectively. According to the calculation, dark energy started in 4.47 billion years ago in agreement with the observed 4.71 ± 0.98 billion years ago. The zero-energy cyclic universe is based on the space-object structures.

The foundation of the theory of the universe dark energy and its nature

Surprisingly recent astronomical observations have provided strong evidence that our universe is not only expanding, but also is expanding at an accelerating rate. This paper pre- sents a basis of the theory of universe space- time dark energy, a solution of Einstein’s cosmological constant problem, physical interpretation of universe dark energy and Einstein’s cosmological constant Lambda and its value ( = 0.29447 × 10-52 m-2), values of universe dark energy density 1.2622 × 10-26 kg/m3 = 6.8023 GeV, universe critical density 1.8069 × 10-26 kg/m3 = 9.7378 GeV, universe matter density 0.54207 × 10-26 kg/m3 = 2.9213 GeV, and universe radiation density 2.7103 × 10-31 kg/m3 = 1.455 MeV. The interpretation in this paper is based on geometric modeling of space-time as a perfect four- dimensional continuum cosmic fluid and the momentum generated by the time. In this modeling time is considered as a mechanical variable along with other variables and treated on an equal footing. In such a modeling, time is considered to have a mechanical nature so that the momentum associated with it is equal to the negative of the universe total energy. Since the momentum associated with the time as a mechanical variable is equal to the negative system total energy, the coupling in the time and its momentum leads to maximum increase in the space-time field with 70.7% of the total energy. Moreover, a null paraboloid is obtained and interpreted as a function of the momentum generated by time. This paper presents also an interpretation of space-time tri-dipoles, gravity field waves, and gravity carriers (the gravitons). This model suggests that the space-time has a polarity and is composed of dipoles which are responsible for forming the orbits and storing the space-time energy-momentum. The tri-di- poles can be unified into a solo space-time dipole with an angle of 45 degrees. Such a result shows that the space-time is not void, on the contrary, it is full of conserved and dynamic energy-momentum structure. Furthermore, the gravity field waves is modeled and assumed to be carried by the gravitons which move in the speed of light. The equivalent mass of the graviton (rest mass) is found to be equal to 0.707 of the equivalent mass of the light photons. Such a result indicates that the lightest particle (up to the author’s knowledge) in the nature is the graviton and has an equivalent mass equals to 2.5119 x 10-52 kg. Based on the fluidic nature of dark energy, a fourth law of thermodynamics is proposed and a new physical interpretation of Kepler’s Laws are presented. Additionally, based on the fact that what we are observing is just the history of our universe, on the Big Bang Theory, Einstein’s General Relativity, Hubble Parameter, cosmic inflation theory and on NASA’s observation of supernova 1a, then a second-order (parabolic) parametric model is obtained in this proposed paper to describe the accelerated ex- pansion of the universe. This model shows that the universe is approaching the universe cosmic horizon line and will pass through a critical point that will influence significantly its fate. Considering the breaking symmetry model and the variational principle of mechanics, then the universe will witness an infinitesimally stationary state and a symmetry breaking. As result of that, our universe will experience in the near future, a very massive impulse force in the order 1083 N. Subsequently, the universe will collapse. Finally, simulation results are demonstrated to verify the analytical results.

An Astrophysical Peek into Einstein’s Static Universe: No Dark Energy

It is shown that in order that the fluid pressure and acceleration are uniform and finite in Einstein’s Static Universe (ESU), , the cosmological constant, is zero. being a fundamental constant, should be same everywhere including the Friedman model. Independent proofs show that it must be so. Accordingly, the supposed acceleration of the universe and the attendant concept of “Dark Energy”(DE) could be an illusion;an artifact of explaining cosmological observations in terms of an oversimplified model which is fundamentally inappropriate. Indeed observations show that the actual universe is lumpy and inhomogeneous at the largest scales. Further in order that there is no preferred centre, such inhomogeneity might be expressed in terms of infinite hierarchial fractals. Also, the recent finding that the Friedman model intrinsically corresponds to zero pressure (and hence zero temperature) in accordance with the fact that an ideal Hubble flow implies no collision, no randomness (Mitra, Astrophys. Sp. Sc., 333,351, 2011) too shows that the Friedman model cannot represent the real universe having pressure, temperature and radiation. Dark Energy might also be an artifact of the neglect of dust absorption of distant Type 1a supernovae coupled with likely evolution of supernovae luminosities or imprecise calibration of cosmic distance ladders or other systemetic errors (White, Rep. Prog. Phys., 70, 883, 2007). In reality, observations may not rule out an inhomogeneous static universe (Ellis, Gen. Rel. Grav. 9, 87, 1978).

Flat Space Cosmology as a Model of Light Speed Cosmic Expansion—Implications for the Vacuum Energy Density

Cosmologists have long ignored a stipulation by quantum field theorists that the vacuum pressure p corresponding to the zero-state vacuum energy must always be equal in magnitude to the vacuum energy density &rho;(i.e., p=&rho;). Although general relativity stipulates the additional condition of proportionality between the vacuum gravitational field and (&rho;+3p), the equation of state for the cosmic vacuum must fulfill both relativistic and quantum stipulations. This paper fully integrates Flat Space Cosmology (FSC) into the Friedmann equations containing a cosmological term, with interesting implications for the nature of dark energy, cosmic entropy and the entropic arrow of time. The FSC vacuum energy density is shown to be equal to the cosmic fluid bulk modulus at all times, thus meeting the quantum theory stipulation of (p=&rho;). To date, FSC is the only viable dark energy cosmological model which has fully-integrated general relativity and quantum features.

Square-root parametrization of dark energy in f(Q)cosmology

This paper is a parametrization of the equation of state(Eo S)parameter of dark energy(DE),which is parameterized using square-root(SR)form i.e.ω_(SR)=ω_(0)+ω_(1)z/√z^(2)+1,where ω_(0)and ω_(1) are free constants.This parametrization is examined in the context of the recently suggested f(Q)gravity theory as an alternative to general relativity(GR),in which gravitational effects are attributed to the non-metricity scalar Q with the functional form f(Q)=Q+αQ^(n),whereαand n are arbitrary constants.We derive observational constraints on model parameters using the Hubble dataset with 31 data points and the Supernovae(SNe)dataset from the Pantheon samples compilation dataset with 1048 data points.For the current model,the evolution of the deceleration parameter,density parameter,EoS for DE,and Om(z)diagnostic have all been investigated.It has been shown that the deceleration parameter favors the current accelerated expansion phase.It has also been shown that the EoS parameter for DE has a quintessence nature at this time.