Environmental Impact of Kakhovka Dam Breach and Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant Explosion on Dnieper River Landscape

The Dnieper River headwaters are in Russia’s Valdai Hills and the river flows south to the Black Sea. The Dnieper River provides a waterway in which to transport goods to and from various European nations. In addition, the dams on the river provide hydro power. There are approximately 2260 km of Dnieper waterways in Russia, in Belarus, and within Ukraine. The Dnieper River has numerous urban centers including Smolensk in Russia, Mogilev in Belarus and Kiev and Zaporizhzhya in Ukraine. The worst nuclear accident in history unfolded, in the Dnieper River watershed, in northern Ukraine as a reactor at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant exploded and burned. After an accident, such as Chernobyl, radionuclide contaminated bodies of water via direct deposition from the air, discharge as effluent or indirectly from catchment basin washout. When radionuclides contaminate large bodies of water, they are quickly dispersing and accumulate in water bottom sediments, benthos, aquatic plants, and bottom feeding fish. The main pathways to humans are through contamination of drinking-water, from use of water for irrigation of food crops, and consumption of contaminated fish. Kakhovka Dam on the Dnieper River was destroyed during the Russian-Ukraine conflict and the dam needs to rebuild as soon as possible. Perhaps lessons learned by the US Army Corps of Engineers (USACE), after using TNT to blow up the Birds Point front line levee on the Mississippi River in May of 2011, can be applied to the man-induced 2023 Kakhovka Dam breach. The Birds Point man-induced levee breaches and subsequent flooding of farmland resulted in the loss of the 2011 crops and damaged the future soil productivity. The strong current and sweep of the water through the three man-induced levee breaches on the New Madrid floodway levee created deep gullies, displaced tons of soil, and damaged irrigation equipment, farms, and homes. The New Madrid floodway agricultural lands were restored, and the environmental damages were mitigated. The Kakhovka Dam destruction caused widespread flooding which affected settlements and farmland across the Dnieper watershed. The presence and breach-induced redistribution of Chernobyl-derived nuclides is an additional condition not present at the New Madrid man-induced levee breach. Four canal networks have become disconnected from the feeder reservoir. The canals were the source of drinking water for 700,000 people living in southern Ukraine. The Kakhovka canals also provided irrigation for vast areas of farmland. The water loss from the canals adversely affected food production in the region. The primary objectives of this paper are to assess lessons learned by the USACE and apply them in Ukraine to help restore and manage the Dnieper lifeline and watershed.

Soil and Crop Damages as a Result of Levee Breaches on Ohio and Mississippi Rivers

Whenever levees on the Ohio or Mississippi rivers are breached, there are soil damages in the flooded areas that impact agricultural management capacities and crop productivity. Floodwaters coat the entire flooded land surface with sediments which include a variety of pollutants, nutrients and contaminants. The nature of the sediments in floodwaters varies with the topographical and land use characteristics of the watershed. The soil types, hydro-geologic features, volume of flow, time of year, agricultural use of fertilizers, pesticides, and other chemicals as well as upstream point sources such as sewage treatment plants, storm sewer drainage and other urban land uses will affect the extent of the contamination and fine scale remediation needed. Preliminary characterization and measurement of soils and sediment deposit at three locations that experienced recent natural and man induced levee breaches are analyzed to identify patterns of soil and crop damage. These findings provide guidance to the restoration of craters, gullies, land scoured areas and contaminated sediment depositional sites with a goal to improve decision-making, risk analysis and remedial effectiveness. Recommendations include： （1） improve characterization and measurement of eroded soils and distribution of sediment contaminants after levee breaching; （2） assess contamination effects on soil productivity and long term agricultural production in order to understand the impacts of flooding on agricultural soils; （3） evaluate reconstruction investments needed to repair levees based on return of the land to productivity and increased landscape resilience by reducing vulnerability to future flooding and levee breaching stress.

Modeling of breaching parameters for debris flow dams

The debris flow dam is a common type of barrier dams,which shows significant differences from other types of barrier dam such as landslide dam,moraine dam in their formation processes,dam body shapes,and internal compositions.The basic breaching parameters such as flood peak discharge are vital indicators of risk assessment.In this study,we elucidated the failure process of the debris flow dam through the flume experiment,and built the calculation equation of the breaching parameters by selecting critical factors.The result shows that the overtopping failure process of the debris flow dam is capable of forming significantly retrogressive scarps,and the failure process experiences three stages,the formation of the retrogressive scarp,the erosion of the retrogressive scarp,and the decline of the retrogressive scarp.Five factors used for establishing the calculation equations for peak discharge(Qp),final width(Wb)of the breach,and duration(T)of the debris flow dam failure are dam height(h),reservoir capacity(V),the fine grain content(P0.075)of the soil,the nonuniformity coefficient(Cu)of the soil,and the upper limit grain size(D90)of the soil,respectively.In the three equations,the correlation coefficients between Qp,Wb,T and the five factors were 0.86,0.70,0.63,respectively.The equations still need to be modified and verified in actual cases.

Why Does the Repaired Len Small Levee, Alexander County, Illinois, US Continue to Breach during Major Flooding Events?

One only needs to study the soil and geologic history and location of the ancient Mississippi and Ohio Rivers to understand why Len Small levee if patched will continue to fail. Much of Dogtooth Bend located in Alexander County, Illinois was originally in the ancient Ohio River valley (Figure 1) alluvial sediments north and east of the confluence with the ancient Mississippi River. The ancient Ohio River valley soils underlain by alluvial sediments and have been easily eroded by the re-aligning modern Mississippi River which now travels through the bedrock controlled Thebes Gap (Figure 2) and into the Ancient Ohio river valley. The primary objectives of this paper are: 1) to explain why Len Small levee, Alexander County, Illinois, US will continue to breach during major flooding events if repaired and 2) to develop a new combined raised causeway and levee system which will provide a Mississippi River floodwater bypass, be sustainable, encourage and fund a land use change, restore the degraded highway road beds, protect remaining Dogtooth Bend farmsteads and farmland that have not yet been degraded by past flooding events and provide floodwater storage during major flooding events at the confluence of the Mississippi and Ohio Rivers.

Numerical three-dimensional modeling of earthen dam piping failure

A physically-based numerical three-dimensional earthen dam piping failure model is developed for homogeneous and zoned soil dams.This model is an erosion model,coupled with force/moment equilibrium analyses.Orifice flow and two-dimensional(2D)shallow water equations(SWE)are solved to simulate dam break flows at different breaching stages.Erosion rates of different soils with different construction compaction efforts are calculated using corresponding erosion formulae.The dam's real shape,soil properties,and surrounding area are programmed.Large outer 2D-SWE grids are used to control upstream and downstream hydraulic conditions and control the boundary conditions of orifice flow,and inner 2D-SWE flow is used to scour soil and perform force/moment equilibrium analyses.This model is validated using the European Commission IMPACT(Investigation of Extreme Flood Processes and Uncertainty)Test#5 in Norway,Teton Dam failure in Idaho,USA,and Quail Creek Dike failure in Utah,USA.All calculated peak outflows are within 10%errors of observed values.Simulation results show that,for a V-shaped dam like Teton Dam,a piping breach location at the abutment tends to result in a smaller peak breach outflow than the piping breach location at the dam's center;and if Teton Dam had broken from its center for internal erosion,a peak outflow of 117851 m'/s,which is 81%larger than the peak outflow of 65120 m3/s released from its right abutment,would have been released from Teton Dam.A lower piping inlet elevation tends to cause a faster/earlier piping breach than a higher piping inlet elevation.

基于GeoDam-BREACH与Graham法的溃坝生命损失估算

应用GeoDam-BREACH工具包模拟了超标准洪水状况下小井沟水库下游的溃坝洪水演进过程,得到水库溃坝下游淹没范围与淹没区水深分布,然后采用Graham法对溃坝导致的生命损失风险进行分析。分析结果表明,小井沟水库发生漫顶破坏时,溃坝洪水对下游产生严重影响,下游村镇有受淹风险;下游溃坝淹没区域的风险人口死亡率较高,并且随着警报时间的减小而增大,从而得出警报时间和风险人口对溃坝洪水严重性的理解程度是生命损失的重要影响因素、应当加强水库大坝的日常巡查工作和预警系统的结论。研究成果为小井沟水库的防洪调度和应急预案编制提供了有效支持,对于同类水库的防洪和安全管理亦具有参考价值。

Numerical modeling of earthen dam breach due to piping failure

Based on model tests of earthen dam breach due to piping failure, a numerical model was developed.A key difference from previous research is the assumption that the cross-section of the pipe channel is an arch, with a rectangle at the bottom and a semicircle at the top before the collapse of the pipe roof, rather than a rectangular or circular cross-section.A shear stress-based erosion rate formula was utilized, and the arched pipe tunnel was assumed to enlarge along its length and width until the overlying soil could no longer maintain stability.Orifice flow and open channel flow were adopted to calculate the breach flow discharge for pressure and free surface flows, respectively.The collapse of the pipe roof was determined by comparing the weight of the overlying soil and the cohesion of the soil on the two sidewalls of the pipe.After the collapse, overtopping failure dominated, and the limit equilibrium method was adopted to estimate the stability of the breach slope when the water flow overtopped.In addition, incomplete and base erosion, as well as one-and two-sided breaches were taken into account.The USDAARS-HERU model test P1, with detailed measured data, was used as a case study, and two artificially filled earthen dam failure cases were studied to verify the model.Feedback analysis demonstrates that the proposed model can provide satisfactory results for modeling the breach flow discharge and breach development process.Sensitivity analysis shows that the soil erodibility and initial piping position significantly affect the prediction of the breach flow discharge.Furthermore, a comparison with a well-known numerical model shows that the proposed model performs better than the NWS BREACH model.

A simplified physically-based breach model for a high concrete-faced rockfill dam:A case study

A simplified physically-based model was developed to simulate the breaching process of the Gouhou concrete-faced rockfill dam （CFRD）, which is the only breach case of a high CFRD in the world. Considering the dam height, a hydraulic method was chosen to simulate the initial scour position on the downstream slope, with the steepening of the downstream slope taken into account; a headcut erosion formula was adopted to simulate the backward erosion as well. The moment equilibrium method was utilized to calculate the ultimate length of a concrete slab under its self-weight and water loads. The calculated results of the Gouhou CFRD breach case show that the proposed model provides reasonable peak breach flow, final breach width, and failure time, with relative errors less than 15% as compared with the measured data. Sensitivity studies show that the outputs of the proposed model are more or less sensitive to different parameters. Three typical parametric models were compared with the proposed model, and the comparison demonstrates that the proposed physically-based breach model performs better and provides more detailed results than the parametric models.

Addressing Soil Degradation and Flood Risk Decision Making in Levee Protected Agricultural Lands under Increasingly Variable Climate Conditions

Public and private levee systems may not be robust enough to address flooding risk to agriculture under changing climate conditions. Of concern are levee protected riverine bottomlands with intensive agricultural uses and diminished wetland systems that give resilience to floodplain hydrologic functions. In the United States natural and induced levee breaching has caused soil damage, loss of agricultural productivity, and public tension among agricultural landowners, urban residents, and environmental interests. Risk management and adaptive capacity of this humannatural system could be improved by assessments of 1) soil damage and 2) stakeholder values, fears, and knowledge about the riverine bottomland agroecosystem.

Dam Breach Analysis Using HEC-RAS and HEC-GeoRAS: The Case of Kesem Kebena Dam

Ethiopia has been booming with active construction of dams within the past few decades for different infrastructural needs, but has never experienced demolition or failure of dams in its history;hence little attention is being given to possible breach scenarios of dams and the resulting floodings. This paper makes analysis of the possible breach of kesem dam and the resulting flood inundation. In this study, the dam has been checked for both overtopping and piping failure modes using one dimensional river analysis model called HEC-RAS. Empirical equations were used to predict dam breach parameters of the two failure modes for use in this model. PMF inflow with a peak 9237.77 m3/s is used as an input to the reservoir to check if overtopping failure was possible. The spill way has proven to have adequate capacity for the flood due to the PMF. Therefore, breaching of the embankment was not possible. Piping failure was also simulated in HEC-RAS and the resulting breach due to piping failure, was analyzed and flood hydrograph was obtained at different cross sections along the river. These are flood hydrographs at 20 km, 40 km and 60 km at the downstream. The resulting flood plain was also mapped using HEC-GeoRas to show the extent of flooding.

Physical modeling into outflow hydrographs and breach characteristics of homogeneous earthfill dams failure due to overtopping

The main objective of the present study is to introduce new empirical equations for the determination of breach geometrical dimensions and peak outflow discharge(Q_(p)).Therefore,a historic failure database of 109 embankments was collected and examined.The most important factors that affect the breach evolution,including grading size,hydraulic,and outflow characteristics are also studied.Some of the parameters used for the determination of Q_(p) and average breach width(Bave)have a significant effect on the erosion process,but they are less reflected in the technical literature.To study the behavior of noncohesive soils during overtopping,15 physical tests were performed at the laboratory,and the effects of interfering parameters were investigated.The experimental output hydrograph was used to simulate the hydrographs resulting from the failure of real dams,and recent artificial intelligence techniques along with linear and nonlinear regression models were employed.The area-time analysis of the laboratory hydrographs shows that the soil particle size and the characteristics of reservoir-basin significantly affect the rate of breach formation and outflow discharge.New relationships are introduced,based on the breach characteristics,by a combination of historical and experimental data,as well as case studies conducted on the hypothetical failure of 10 operational dams.The mathematical model is also used to simulate the process of breach evaluation.Based on statistical indices,comparison of the results,and sensitivity analysis,the developed equations can better express the susceptibility of materials to erosion and their application can minimize downstream vulnerabilities.

考虑超标准洪水作用的沥青心墙坝溃决生命损失评估模型

抗冲刷能力更强的沥青心墙坝一旦遭遇超标准洪水,将面临溃决风险,对下游人民造成严重威胁。现有针对沥青心墙坝的溃决生命损失研究尚属匮乏,亟需开展生命损失评估。本文分析超标准洪水作用下沥青心墙坝的溃决特征,考虑生命损失影响因素之间的相互作用过程,基于溃决洪水致灾机制构建生命损失定量评估模型,实现溃决生命损失的快速定量分析;通过方法对比和敏感性分析,明晰不同影响因素对溃决生命损失的作用规律。将模型应用于新疆射月沟溃决案例发现:溃决洪峰流量为3320 m^(3)/s,溃决历时3.35 h,与实际结果相符;生命损失定量模型分析结果为31人,与实际误差在11%以内,优于其他损失模型;风险人口的敏感性指数I_(max)和I_(min)值最大,分别为1.436、0.486,是射月沟溃决生命损失最重要的影响因素,其他依次为洪水严重性、是否撤离、警报时间、淹没范围。

考虑人体与水流相互作用的溃坝洪水生命损失评估模型

溃坝洪水会给下游人民群众造成巨大的生命损失,开展溃坝洪水造成的生命损失风险定量评估对应急抢险救灾具有重要的现实意义。本文在已有生命损失贝叶斯网络HURAM1.0模型基础上,引入了人体稳定性物理模型,考虑人体与水流相互作用关系,对处于洪水中的人先进行稳定性判定,并进行溺水判定,运用蒙特卡洛模拟方法,综合了水深和水流速对生命损失的影响,建立HURAM2.0模型;并将该模型应用于唐家山堰塞坝溃坝洪水生命损失分析。结果表明:HURAM2.0模型建立了水流流速对生命损失影响的定量关系,更精确地刻画了人体在水流中的稳定性和求生能力,相比HURAM1.0模型对较强洪水强度条件下的生命损失预测结果更准确。同时,在本文建立的模型中,除水深度、洪水严重程度变化不大,其余变量的敏感性均有所上升,其中居民区住宅层数、在建筑物中庇护情况和溃坝时长等变量对模型计算结果的最大影响程度分别增加142%、95%和93%,加强了模型在低、中、高3类洪水强度下的解释性,与HURAM1.0相比在贝叶斯反演分析中更占优势。在唐家山堰塞坝溃坝风险分析中,HURAM2.0能区分出不同水流速条件下的生命损失,更符合实际情况,即开挖泄流槽前风险大、死亡率高,在现场勘测和开挖泄流槽后风险及死亡人数大大降低,建议结合预警疏散以降低生命损失风险。

考虑降雨-洪水-泥沙作用下的淤地坝溃决致灾风险评估

淤地坝一旦遭遇极端降雨极易导致洪水漫顶溃决,将对下游人民群众造成极大威胁,亟需开展淤地坝溃决风险定量评估。现有研究忽略泥沙对溃决致灾过程的影响。本研究通过分析降雨诱发的泥沙对溃决致灾的影响过程,揭示降雨-洪水-泥沙作用下的溃决致灾机制,建立考虑降雨-洪水-泥沙作用下的淤地坝溃决致灾风险定量评估模型,将传统的“降雨-洪水”研究发展为“降雨-洪水-泥沙”,实现溃决坝体的精准判定和风险定量评估。将模型应用于王茂沟流域两次溃决案例,并评估不同重现期降雨量的溃决致灾风险。结果表明:考虑泥沙对溃决致灾过程的影响,判定关地沟3坝、背塔沟坝和康和沟3坝溃决,判定结果与实际溃决情况吻合,忽略泥沙影响则背塔沟坝的溃决判定存在差异。与忽略泥沙对溃决致灾的作用相比,考虑泥沙作用2017-7-26降雨下关地沟3坝、背塔沟坝和康和沟3坝起溃时间分别提前11 min、13 min和7 min,有利于及时发出预警,快速撤离两岸群众,提升了淤地坝预警的准确度。不同重现期降雨量下,关地沟3坝10年一遇溃决流量为4.82 m^(3)/s,200年一遇溃决流量为5.97m^(3)/s。黄柏沟2坝和关地沟4坝在目前淤积情况下,可抵御200年一遇降雨。

极端降雨条件下淤地坝系溃决损失计算方法

近年来,由于自身“服役”状态欠佳和汛期极端降雨天气频发,淤地坝在发挥综合效益的同时面临着溃决风险。这对下游人民生命财产和生态环境保护造成极大威胁。因此,亟需提出极端降雨条件下淤地坝系溃决损失的定量计算方法。基于“家谱法”坝系溃决风险分析程序FT-IWHR、溃口流量程序DB-IWHR、一维洪水演进计算程序,提出淤地坝系溃决—洪水演进全过程计算方法,结合李—周法生命损失计算模型等,构建涵盖生命损失、经济损失、社会环境影响3方面的溃决损失计算方法体系;并在西五色浪流域淤地坝系进行应用。结果表明:警报时间对生命损失数量影响极大,充分警报和无警报下生命损失数量相差10倍左右且降雨量超过100年一遇后损失激增,坝系以中小型淤地坝溃决为主。溃决损失计算方法可实现对淤地坝系溃决损失进行快速量化评估,为淤地坝系安全度汛和病险坝除险加固工作提供技术支撑,同时建议西五色浪流域做好中小型淤地坝的溃决风险防控工作。

爬高型堰塞坝漫顶溃决机理研究

我国西南地区频发的地质构造活动和极端自然灾害诱发了大量的堰塞坝,属于堰塞坝的高发地,其形成的堰塞坝具有突然性强、危险性大的特点,严重威胁所在流域人民的生命财产安全,深入研究爬高型堰塞坝溃坝过程可为除险减灾提供科学理论支撑。为此,以土颗粒级配、背水面坡度、爬高型堰塞坝坝顶形状为影响堰塞坝漫顶溃决的主要因素,从漫顶溃决过程、溃口流量过程、溃口演变过程、溃后残留坝体及下游淤积情况等方面,分析了爬高型堰塞坝漫顶溃决演化过程。试验结果表明:随着土石料级配变宽,坝体整体稳定性增强溃决历时延长,洪峰流量减小,峰现时间较晚,残留溃口上宽小坝体体积大,距坝趾泥沙输移长度短且距坝趾1 m处泥沙厚度薄;背水坡面越陡,水流获得的动能越大,加速了整个坝体溃决过程,溃口扩展得到充足发育,洪峰流量增大,峰现时间提前,残留溃口上宽较大坝体体积小,距坝趾泥沙输移长度长且距坝趾1 m处泥沙厚度较厚;宽深比越大,则溃口相对位置越高,冲蚀阶段所具有的水头差大,加速了坝体冲刷进程,溃口扩展得到充分发育,残留溃口上宽尺度大坝体总量小,距坝趾泥沙输移距离远且距坝趾1 m处泥沙厚度较厚。

堰塞坝溃决参数及其寿命预测

堰塞坝溃决洪水对下游影响区域的人民生命财产、基础设施以及生态环境构成严重威胁,提高堰塞坝溃决参数及其寿命预测的准确度是应急处置的迫切需求。本文对全球1957组堰塞坝案例分别进行地理、统计学分析,在得到溃决参数主要影响因素的基础上,选取数据库中拥有完整信息的48组案例,利用非线性回归方法分别建立了洪峰流量、破坏深度、溃口顶宽、溃口底宽和溃决时长的预测模型,其均具有较高的拟合程度。之后分析了堰塞坝溃决参数的敏感性,结果显示坝高对溃决过程有显著影响。此外,基于19组寿命信息充分的案例,使用不同自变量和算法分别建立了蓄水阶段持续时间、溢流阶段持续时间的预测模型,并采用加权融合法提出了相应的融合模型。该成果可为量化评估堰塞坝溃决过程参数和寿命预测提供参考。

不同粒组含量下堰塞坝溃决过程的试验研究

【目的】堰塞坝结构松散、颗粒级配范围宽,易发生漫顶溃决,严重威胁上下游人民的生命财产安全。为进一步探究相同粒径范围内不同粒组含量条件下堰塞坝的溃决过程,【方法】以“11.3”金沙江白格堰塞坝为参考原型,开展了溃决模型水槽试验。【结果】结果显示,堰塞坝的溃决过程可以划分为渗流与过流、溯源侵蚀、溃口发展及衰减平衡四个阶段。溃口流速与溃决流量均呈现先增大后减小的过程,但峰值流量滞后于峰值流速。另外,溃决水流冲击力在溃口发展阶段持续增大,在衰减平衡阶段开始下降,而水流重度在溃口发展阶段表现出一定范围内的波动。随着中值粒径的增大,溃决流量峰值减小、峰现时间延迟、溃决水流冲击力峰值减小,下游泥沙淤积区长度变短、厚度变大。【结论】研究结果进一步揭示了相同粒径范围内的不同粒组含量对堰塞坝稳定性、溃决过程和溃决参数的影响,可为堰塞坝灾害的风险评估和应急处置提供参考。

沥青混凝土心墙坝漫顶溃坝试验与溃坝过程数值模拟

基于中国新疆射月沟水库溃坝案例资料,在水槽冲蚀试验系统进行了沥青混凝土心墙坝漫顶溃坝试验,直观展现了坝壳料冲蚀与心墙折断过程,发现了抗冲蚀能力强的沥青混凝土心墙对溃坝过程的重要影响。将沥青混凝土心墙坝的漫顶溃坝过程分为3个阶段:坝壳料溯源冲蚀至沥青混凝土心墙裸露;心墙第一次折断,溃口流量迅速增大并出现峰值;心墙发生多次折断直至溃口稳定。在试验成果的基础上建立了模拟溃口流量和溃口形态演化的沥青混凝土心墙坝漫顶溃坝过程数学模型,模型的特色在于通过冲蚀公式模拟沥青混凝土心墙的裸露长度,采用力矩平衡法计算裸露心墙的折断时刻、折断长度和折断次数,从而合理反映了沥青混凝土心墙坝漫顶溃坝时坝壳料与心墙的耦合作用机制。采用建立的数学模型对射月沟溃坝过程进行了反演分析,计算结果表明重要溃坝参数与实测值误差均在±25%以内,较好地反映了溃坝过程,研究成果可为沥青混凝土心墙坝漫顶溃坝过程模拟提供借鉴。

梯级水库群溃坝洪水风险分析——以澜沧江上游为例

梯级水库的建设是开发利用我国丰富水能资源、保障国家能源安全、实现减排目标的重要途径.但是由于部分水库结构老化、地势险峻以及近几年极端天气频发等原因,极有可能造成单坝溃决,继而引起梯级连溃,最终使整条流域系统瘫痪,为下游城镇带来不可估量的经济和生命损失.为准确预测梯级连溃发生后的危险程度及影响范围,基于心墙坝漫顶溃坝数学模型和HEC-RAS软件提出了梯级连溃地貌特征演变及洪水演进计算方法,并应用于澜沧江流域梯级水库RM-XW水电站大尺度连溃分析.结果表明,在遭遇1.4倍超标准洪水的情况下,RM水电站发生漫顶溃决,溃决过程中,心墙发生四次折断,并伴随溃口迅速扩张以及溃决流量激增,最高峰值流量达699986.5 m^(3)/s,溃决洪水演进至下游,使WNL-XW水电站相继发生漫顶.河道距离、坝型特征和坝体物理参数是影响梯级连溃过程中溃决流量大小的重要因素.