Impacts of canopy structure on the sub-canopy solar radiation under a deciduous forest based on fisheye photographs

Forest canopy in a deciduous forest has significant sheltering effects on the sub-canopy solar radiation,significantly influencing the energy balance of snow and permafrost beneath the forest and their spatial distribution.This study employs a digital camera mounted with a fisheye lens to acquire photographs at various times in a growth cycle of the forest canopy at three selected sites in a deciduous forest near the Greater Khingan Mountains Forest Ecological Station,Northeast China.The vegetation types and conditions at the selected sites include P1 in Ledum-Claopodium-L.dahurica,P2 in Carex tato-L.dahurica,and P3 in Betula fruticosa-L.dahurica.After necessary image processing,these photographs were used to identify the canopy structure and its impacts on the sub-canopy solar radiation.Results show that fisheye photographs can successfully capture the forest canopy structure and are useful in estimating the sub-canopy solar radiation.The order of sheltering effects from the largest to the smallest on sub-canopy solar radiation at three selected sites is P3,P1,and P2,highly depending on the canopy density.Then sub-canopy solar radiation was calculated using fisheye photographs and an algorithm validated by in-situ observed solar radiation beneath the canopy at P1 and P3.The results are reasonable,although the accuracy seems compromised due to the mismatch of conditions for calculation and observation.Results also show that the mean annual solar radiation above the canopy was about 148.3 W/m2 in 2018,and the mean annual solar radiation values beneath the canopy were about 90.0,123.8,and 61.0 W/m2 at P1,P2,and P3,with only 60%,84%,and 42%of the total solar radiation penetrating through the canopy,respectively.Even in winter,when the trees are leafless,the canopy sheltering effects cannot be ignored in dense forests.Despite the limitations,fisheye photographs and related algorithms are useful in investigating the forest canopy structure and its impacts on sub-canopy solar radiation.

Tree species diversity and stand structure along major community types in lowland primary and secondary moist deciduous forests in Tripura,Northeast India

Tree species diversity and population structure at different community types were described and analyzed for primary and secondary lowland moist deciduous forests in Tripura. Overall 10,957 individual trees belonging to 46 family, 103 genera and 144 species were counted at ≥30 cm DBH （diameter at breast height） using 28 permanent belt transects with a size of 1 ha （10 m × 1000 m）. Four different tree communities were identified. The primary forests was dominated by Shorea robusta （mean density 464.77 trees.ha^-1, 105 species） and Schima wallichii （336.25 trees.ha^-1, 82 species）, while the secondary forests was dominated by Tectona grandis （333.88 trees.ha^-1, 105 species） and Hevea brasiliensis （299.67 trees.ha^-1, 82 species）. Overall mean basal area in this study was 18.01m2.ha^-1; the maximum value was recorded in primary Shorea forest （26.21 m2.ha^-1）. Mean density and diversity indices were differed significantly within four different communities. No significant differences were observed in number of species, genera, family and tree basal cover area. Significant relationships were found between the species richness and different tree population groups across the communities. Results revealed that species diversity and density were increased in those forests due to past disturbances which resulted in slow accumu- lation of native oligarchic small tree species. Seventeen species were recorded with 〈2 individuals of which Saraca asoka （Roxb.） de Wilde and Entada phaseoloides （L.） Men＇. etc. extensively used in local ethnomedicinal formulations. The present S. robusta Gaertn dominated forest was recorded richer （105 species） than other reported studies. Moraceae was found more speciose family instead of Papilionaceae and Euphorbiaceae than other Indian moist deciduous forests. Seasonal phenological gap in such moist deciduous forests influenced the population of Trachypithecus pileatus and capped langur. The analysis of FIV suggested a slow trend of shifting the population of Lamiaceae group by Moraceae species in secondary T. grandis L. dominated community.

Tropical deciduous forest in Yunnan,southwestern China:Implications for geological and climatic histories from a little-known forest formation

In the southern mountain ranges of Yunnan province,China,deep valleys of several large rivers create rain shadows with hot dry summers,and are locally designated tropical;towards the north,notably in the Lancang(Upper Mekong)valley,these regions may experience frost during winter.The woody forest canopy of these valleys is predominantly deciduous,with evergreen elements in the north,where the canopy is open and the forest savanna-like.However,we here present tall forest with a closed deciduous canopy and semi-evergreen subcanopy observed in hot dry valleys of these rivers and their tributaries in the tropical south.The structure and physiognomy of these forests resemble the tall(moist)deciduous forest formation widespread in South Asia and Indo-Burma.Furthermore,these forests are largely composed of tropical elements at both the generic(80%)and the species level(>70%),indicating that these forests are indeed tropical.We originally hypothesized that these isolated forests represent refugia of a pre-Holocene extension of tall(moist)deciduous forest formation of South Asia and Indo-Burma.The sample plot we established to test this hypothesis confirmed that these forests share the structure and physiognomy of the tall(moist)deciduous forest formation;however,the plots also showed that these forests lack the characteristic and dominant species of the formation's Indo-Burmese range.The tree flora,in particular,indicates that both deciduous and evergreen elements are instead mostly derived from the adjacent tropical semi-evergreen forests of tropical southern China;yet they also include an important endemic element,which implies that these forests have survived as refuges possibly since the Pliocene.The exceptional representation of evergreen elements in these forests indicates that they have rarely been subject to hot fires or domestic cattle browsing,adding to the unique nature of the forests and further justifying their strict conservation.

Anthropogenic disturbances and status of forest and wildlife in the dry deciduous forests of Chhattisgarh state in India

The advent of modem forces and the changes in socio- economic patterns of forest dwellers have increased the pressures on the forests. In order to mitigate such pressures and also to protect the forests and wildlife the model of protected areas networks has shifted and en- hanced such pressures in the unprotected natural forests due to several reasons. Being a low profile category of protected status and continuous human settlements, the present study highlights the case of dry deciduous forests of Sarguja district of Chhattisgarh state of India. The major objec- tives of this study were to quantify the status of forests and wildlife and also to determine the extent of anthropogenic disturbances faced by the dry deciduous forests of central India. Transect and silent drive count methods were used for sampling wildlife and quadrat method was used for sampling vegetation. Besides, the local uses of various forest pro- duces were also studied in view of understanding the people dependency on forests. The forest vegetation, in the study area, was pre-dominated by Shorea robusta, which had Madhuca indica, Diospyrus melanoxylon and Buchnania lanzan as the major companion species. The forest had either the high girth class mature tree species or the saplings. The low vegeta- tion cover and density were due to the high anthropogenic pressures mainly in the form of heavy livestock grazing and collection of etlmo- botanically important species. The study though reveals that the area is not rich in wildlife and the forest is fragmented, the area still supports some important species, which include many rare and endangered plants and animals. The findings of this study have been discussed in view of the management and conservation of the forest and wildlife in the dry deciduous forests.

Characteristics of bird communities between slope and valley in natural deciduous forest, South Korea

Bird communities were surveyed in natural deciduous forest of both slope area and valley area at Mt. Gyebangsan (3740 30 N, 12830 1 E), Gangwon Province, South Korea in winter, spring, summer and autumn from September 2000 to November 2001. The investigating results showed that there existed differences in the bird species composition, richness, bird species diversity, guild structure between slope area and valley area, and the vertical forest structure, especially coverage of understory, and diameter at breast height (DBH) distribution also had significant difference between the two study areas. The differences in habitat structure between the areas are very likely to have influences on how birds used the available habitat.

Floristic Composition, Structure and Soil Properties of Mixed Deciduous Forest and Deciduous Dipterocarp Forest: Case Study in Madan Watershed, Myanmar

Patterns of woody regeneration in terms of species composition and diversity were studied in mixed deciduous forest (MDF) and deciduous dipterocarp forest (DDF) in Minbyin reserved forest of Lewe Township. A total of 57 plant species of MDF belonging to 28 families and 342 individuals and 25 plant species of DDF consist of 15 families and 285 individuals were identified. Plant species diversity was quantitatively higher in the MDF (H' = 3.68) compared to the DDF (H' = 2.39). Tectona grandis showed the highest density (30), dominance (4.40 m2) and IVI (27.01) of MDF and Dipterocarpus tuberculatus also composed the highest density (109), dominance (9.02 m2) and IVI (81.87) in DDF. The smallest diameter class (10 - 20 cm) comprised with 29 species, 103 individuals in MDF and 18 species, 85 individuals in DDF. The size class distribution displayed a reverse J-shaped pattern. The largest numbers of species were concentrated in the smallest height class in both investigated forests because of height and diameter distribution is closely related. The total densities of seedlings and saplings were 1219 and 531 ha-1 in MDF and 988 and 444 ha-1 in DDF respectively. Although soil texture of (40 - 50 cm) and (90 - 100 cm) were sandy clay loam in mixed deciduous forest, the other layers of both investigated forests were sandy loam.

Seasonal changes of bioelements in litter and their potential return to green leaves in five species of tropical dry deciduous forest, western India

The Litter nutrient concentrations of N, P, Ca, Mg, K and Na in mature leaves, twigs and reproductive parts and their relationship between senescent and young leaves were investigated in five forest species： Acacia nilotica, Acacia leucophloea. Tectona grandis, Miliusa tomentosa and Butea monosperma in Indian tropical dry deciduous forest in Western India.. Total dry matter of plant species was recorded and analyzed for N, P, Ca, Mg, K and Na. A. nilotica had the highest concentrations of N in leaf, while ,4. leucophloea had the highest concentrations of Ca and Mg in leaf. The highest concentrations of P in leaf were found in A. nilotica, A. leucophloea and B. monosperma where as lowest in T. grandis and M. tomentosa. No significant differences in K and Na were registered among the species. A marked seasonal variability was ob- served in the concentrations of N, P and K, except for Ca and Mg. Potas- sium is the single element that undergoes leaching and mobilization in all species. Resorped N and P can be used for the production of fresh leaf in the following annual cycle. Nutrient resorption and retranslocation from senescent leaves and litter supports the production of new foliage and increase the fertility of soil.

Land cover mapping of deciduous forest regions using ETM+ data: a case study of Azerbaijan Province, Iran

Up to date information about the existing land cover patterns and changes in land cover over time is one of the prime prerequisites for the preparation of an integrated development plan and economic development program of a region. By using ETM＋ image data from 2002, we provided a land cover map of deciduous forest regions in Azerbaijan Province, Iran. Initial qualitative evaluation of the data showed no significant radiometric errors. Image classification was carried out using a maximum likelihood-based supervised classification method. In the end, we determined five major land cover classes, i.e., grass lands, deciduous broad-leaf forest, cultivated land, river and land without vegetation cover. Accuracy, estimated by the use of criteria such as overall accuracy from a confusion matrix of classification was 86% with a 0.88 Kappa coefficient. Such high accuracy results demonstrate that the combined use of spectral and textural characteristics increased the number of classes in the field classification, also with excellent accuracy. The availability and use of time series of remote sensing data permit the detection and quantification of land cover changes and improve our understanding of the past and present status of forest ecosystems.

Community Dynamics of Seed Rain in Mixed Evergreen Broad-leaved and Deciduous Forests in a Subtropical Mountain of Central China

Seed dispersal is a key process within community dynamics. The spatial and temporal variations of seed dispersal and the interspecific differences are crucial for understanding species coexistence and community dynamics. This might also hold for the mixed evergreen broadleaved and deciduous forests in the mountains of subtropical China, but until now little existing knowledge is available for this question. In 2001, we chose to monitor the seed rain process of our mixed evergreen broad-leaved and deciduous forest communities in Mount Dalaoling National Forest Park, Yichang, Hubei Province, China. The preliminary analyses show obvious variations in seed rain density, species compositions and timing of seed rain among four communities. The average seed rain densities of the four communities are 2.43 ± 5.15, 54.13 ±182.75, 10.05 ±19.30 and 24.91 ± 58.86 inds/m^2, respectively; about one tenth the values in other studies in subtropical forests of China. in each community, the seed production is dominated by a limited number of species, and the contributions from the others are generally minor. Fecundity of evergreen broadleaved tree species is weaker than deciduous species. The seed rain of four communities begins earlier than September, and stops before December, peaking from early September to late October. The beginning date, ending date and peak times of seed rain are extensively varied among the species, indicating different types of dispersal strategies. According to the existing data, the timing of seed rain is not determined by the climate conditions in the same period, while the density of seed rain may be affected by the disturbances of weather variations at a finer temporal resolution.

Phenology of a tropical dry deciduous forest of Bhadra wildlife sanctuary,southern India

Introduction:This paper describes the leafing,flowering and fruiting phenology of canopy trees in the dry deciduous forest of Bhadra wildlife sanctuary from June 2004 to May 2006.Method:All the woody canopy individuals(>20 cm girth at breast height)were identified and tagged with a unique number along a transect of approximately 2 Km comprising 157 individuals of 22 species.Observations were made at monthly intervals from June 2004 to May 2006 for leafing,flowering and fruiting phenophases.Result:Leaf fall starts in September,with a peak in December and January.Leaf initiation begins in February,with a peak in April before the monsoon.Leaf expansion starts in February from pre-monsoon with a peak in May and July during the monsoon.Leaf senescence begins in September to November and peaks in January to March.Flower bud initiates in January with a peak in April and May,and pollination begins in April with a peak in May and July before the monsoon to onset of monsoon.Fruit bud initiates in May with a peak in September and October.Unripened fruit was observed in May with a peak in September and November.Fruit fall begins in November with a peak in March.Conclusion:Our results show that leafing and flowering activities occur in the summer or pre-monsoon.Fruiting patterns occur during the monsoon to post-monsoon season.Seasonality among various phenophases indicates that leaf senescence flower initiation and fruit fall have strong seasonality.

DECIDUOUS AND DECIDUOUS-EVERGREEN FORESTS IN NORTHEAST CHINA

Two types of forests in Northeast China is divided in this paper, that is, the deciduous forests in the northern part and the deciduous-evergreen forests in the eastern part. Both distributions of the two types of forests have also been presented. Meanwhile, the development and succession as well as components of forests have been studied in detail. In the end, the vertical distribution of the deciduous forests have been shown, in which, the near-temperate cold temperate deciduous coniferous forests are distributing in the low elevation area between 450m-600m from the northto the south, the typical Siberian cold temperate deciduous coniferous forests are widely distributing from 450m-820m in the north to 600m-1050m in the south, the humid cold temperate deciduous coniferous forests can only be found in high elevation area from 820m-l 100m in the north to 1050m-1380m in the south, the cold temperate deciduous coniferous open forests can seldom appear at the top of a few peaks.

Effect of forest fire on tree diversity and regeneration potential in a tropical dry deciduous forest of Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, Western Ghats, India

Introduction:The study was conducted in Mudumalai Tiger Reserve,in the Western Ghats to understand the effect of a single fire event on tree diversity and regeneration status.Four forest patches were selected which were unburned,2-year-old burn,5-year-old burn,and 15-year-old burn.Three 0.1 ha square plots were laid randomly in all four patches and analyzed for tree diversity,stand structure,and regeneration of tree species.Results:A total of 4129 individuals of tree species were recorded in field surveys,comprising 3474 seedlings,121 saplings,and 534 trees.Totally,40 tree species were recorded in study plots,from which 28 species were seedlings,16 species were saplings,and 37 species were at tree stages.Conclusions:Tree diversity decreased in 2-year-old and 5-year-old burnt plots and was reached to the level of unburnt plots in 15 years of interval.Stems of small size classes started increasing after the fire.Seedling density increased linearly in subsequent years after fire but sapling and tree density recorded less than control in B2 but was higher in B5 and B15.The overall fire affected diversity,but regeneration showed a positive trend.

Do forest health threats affect upland oak regeneration and recruitment?Advance reproduction is a key co-morbidity

We analyzed national forest inventory data collected from circa 2000–2018 across 37 states in the eastern United States to better understand the influence of forest health related canopy disturbances on the regeneration and recruitment dynamics of upland oaks(Quercus).We found low levels of oak recruitment across all disturbance types examined but limited evidence of any direct effects from the type of disturbance on the population of regenerating oaks.The general lack of differences in oak regeneration response between forest health disturbances and disturbances caused by harvested or non-disturbed plots does not indicate that the effects of forest health disturbances were benign,however.Instead,low level of oak recruitment across all disturbance types highlights the pervasiveness of the trend of shifting composition in once oak-dominated forests where oak is absent or sparse in the regeneration layer.Our results show that oak recruitment was higher when oak was present as advance reproduction prior to disturbance from any cause examined.Collectively,these results lead us to conclude that the widespread inadequacy of oak advance reproduction in mature oak-dominated forests is the prevailing threat to oak forest health and sustainability.We suggest the status of advance reproduction be treated as a co-morbidity when weighing the risk and potential outcomes from other threats to upland oak forests in the eastern United States.

Species spatial distributions in a warm-temperate deciduous broad-leaved forest in China

Spatial distribution is fundamental for understanding species coexistence mechanisms in forest communities.Here we comprehensively explored fine-scale spatial patterns of tree species in a secondary warm-temperate deciduous broad-leaved forest community in north China.Aggregated distribution patterns were predominant.Species functional traits had no significant effects on their spatial patterns.The aggregation intensity decreased with increasing DBH and abundance.The multivariate linear stepwise regression showed that abundance and maximum DBH were correlated with the aggregation intensity.Our results partially confirm that species attributes(abundance,DBH)and habitat heterogeneity may primarily contribute to spatial patterns and species coexistence in this secondary forest.

Deforestation and fragmentation trends of seasonal dry tropical forest in Ecuador: impact on conservation

Background:Fragmentation and deforestation are one of the greatest threats to forests,and these processes are of even more concern in the tropics,where the seasonal dry forest is possibly one of the most threatened ecosystems with the least remaining surface area.Methods:The deforestation and fragmentation patterns that had occurred in Ecuadorian seasonal dry forests between 1990 and 2018 were verified,while geographic information systems and land cover shapes provided by the Ecuadorian Ministry of the Environment were employed to classify and evaluate three types of seasonal dry forests:deciduous,semi-deciduous,and transition.The study area was tessellated into 10 km2 hexagons,in which six fragmentation parameters were measured:number of patches,mean patch size,median patch size,total edge,edge density and reticular fragmentation index(RFI).The RFI was also measured both outside and inside protected natural areas(unprotected,national protected areas and protected forest).Moreover,the areas with the best and worst conservation status,connectivity and risk of disappearance values were identified by means of a Getis-Ord Gi*statistical analysis.Results:The deforestation of seasonal dry forests affected 27.04%of the original surface area still remaining in 1990,with an annual deforestation rate of−1.12%between 1990 and 2018.The RFI has increased by 11.61%as a result of the fact that small fragments of forest have tended to disappear,while the large fragments have been fragmented into smaller ones.The semi-deciduous forest had the highest levels of fragmentation in 2018.The three categories of protection had significantly different levels of fragmentation,with lower RFI values in national protected areas and greater values in protected forests.Conclusions:The seasonal dry forest is fragmenting,deforesting and disappearing in some areas.An increased protection and conservation of the Ecuadorian seasonal dry forest is,therefore,necessary owing to the fact that not all protection measures have been effective.

Soil Genesis of Four Alfisols Established in Oak Hickory Forests along Drainages into the Mississippi River in Southeastern Missouri, USA

Alfisols in USA taxonomy are “deciduous forest” soils having an argillic horizon with a base saturation in the control section greater than 35%. Alfisols are geographically extensive and support productive agriculture and deciduous forest ecosystems. Understanding Alfisol genesis, including the presence and intensity of the dominant soil processes, facilitates best management practices that provide stewardship for these soil resources and improves forest and agriculture productivity. Four Alfisols, presently having mature forest settings and located in the central United States along the Mississippi River, were selected for soil and landscape description, classification, and delineation of the dominant soil forming processes. Excavated soils were described and routinely sampled for subsequent physical, chemical, and mineralogical analysis. An aqua regia digestion protocol provided elemental analysis for identifying and inferring the intensity of soil forming processes. The dominant soil forming factors include 1) organic matter accumulation, 2) clay eluviation-illuviation, 3) acidification, 4) base cation accumulation in the A horizons by the forest vegetation, 5) Fe-oxyhydroxide formation, and 6) clay mineral synthesis. Two soils were developed entirely in Peoria loess and two soils were developed in Peoria Loess overlying Ordovician limestone residuum. Ecological site descriptions provide land managers information for evaluating land suitability and the capability to implement different management activities without ecosystem disturbance. Best management practices for the described landforms and based on their Ecological Site Descriptions are presented.

Low net primary productivity of dominant tree species in a karst forest, southwestern China： first evidences from tree ring width and girth increment

Aboveground net primary productivity(ANPP)of two dominant species, one deciduous tree(Platycarya strobilacea) and one evergreen tree(Machilus cavaleriei),was estimated based on the tree-ring width and the girth increment as well as allometric functions in a karst evergreen and deciduous broadleaved mixed forest in central Guizhou Province, southwestern China. Results showed that the ANPP increased from 1961 to 2015, especially during the last 20–30 years, but with strong variations. The deciduous tree had higher ANPP than the evergreen tree according to two kinds of estimates by the tree ring and girth increment. The averaged ANPP for these two mature trees was 2.27 kg/individual/year, ca. 8 t/ha/year considering the normal stand density. Such karst forest productivity was lower than the natural subtropical forests in China and in the world.

田林老山中山两类森林凋落物研究

田林老山中山两类森林凋落物研究梁宏温（广西农学院林学分院，南宁５３０００１）ＳｔｕｄｉｅｓｏｎｔｈｅＬｉｔｔｅｒｆａｌｌｏｆＴｗｏＦｏｒｅｓｔＴｙｐｃｓｉｎＭｉｄ—ＡｌｔｉｔｕｄｅｏｆＬａｏｓｈａｎＭｏｕｎｔａｉｎｉｎＴｉａｎｌｉｎＣｏｕｎｔｙ．￥Ｌ...

Phylogeography and morphometric variation in the Cinnamon Hummingbird complex:Amazilia rutila(Aves:Trochilidae)

Background:The Mesoamerican dominion is a biogeographic area of great interest due to its complex topography and distinctive climatic history.This area has a large diversity of habitats,including tropical deciduous forests,which house a large number of endemic species.Here,we assess phylogeographic pattern,genetic and morphometric variation in the Cinnamon Hummingbird complex Amazilia rutila,which prefers habitats in this region.This resident species is distributed along the Pacific coast from Sinaloa—including the Tres Marías Islands in Mexico to Costa Rica,and from the coastal plain of the Yucatán Peninsula of Mexico south to Belize.Methods:We obtained genetic data from 85 samples of A.rutila,using 4 different molecular markers(mtDNA:ND2,COI;nDNA:ODC,MUSK)on which we performed analyses of population structure(median-joining network,STRU CTU RE,FST,AMOVA),Bayesian and Maximum Likelihood phylogenetic analyses,and divergence time estimates.In order to evaluate the historic suitability of environmental conditions,we constructed projection models using past scenarios(Pleistocene periods),and conducted Bayesian Skyline Plots(BSP)to visualize changes in population sizes over time.To analyze morphometric variation,we took measurements of 5 morphological traits from 210 study skins.We tested for differences between sexes,differences among geographic groups(defined based on genetic results),and used PCA to examine the variation in multivariate space.Results:Using mtDNA,we recovered four main geographic groups:the Pacific coast,the Tres Marías Islands,the Chiapas region,and the Yucatán Peninsula together with Central America.These same groups were recovered by the phylogenetic results based on the multilocus dataset.Demography based on BSP results showed constant population size over time throughout the A.rutila complex and within each geographic group.Ecological niche model projec-tions onto past scenarios revealed no drastic changes in suitable conditions,but revealed some possible refuges.Mor-phometric results showed minor sexual dimorphism in this species and statistically significant differences between geographic groups.The Tres Marías Islands population was the most differentiated,having larger body size than the remaining groups.Conclusions:The best supported evolutionary hypothesis of diversification within this group corresponds to geo-graphic isolation(limited gene flow),differences in current environmental conditions,and historical habitat fragmen-tation promoted by past events(Pleistocene refugia).Four well-defined clades comprise the A.rutila complex,and we assess the importance of a taxonomic reevaluation.Our data suggest that both of A.r.graysoni(Tres Marías Islands)and A.r.rutila(Pacific coast)should be considered full species.The other two strongly supported clades are:(a)the Chiapas group(southern Mexico),and(b)the populations from Yucatán Peninsula and Central America.These clades belong to the corallirostris taxon,which needs to be split and properly named.

Spectral vegetation indices as the indicator of canopy photosynthetic productivity in a deciduous broadleaf forest

Aims Understanding of the ecophysiological dynamics of forest canopy photosynthesis and its spatial and temporal scaling is crucial for revealing ecological response to climate change.Combined observations and analyses of plant ecophysiology and optical remote sensing would enable us to achieve these studies.In order to examine the utility of spectral vegetation indices(VIs)for assessing ecosystem-level photosynthesis,we investigated the relationships between canopy-scale photosynthetic productivity and canopy spectral reflectance over seasons for 5 years in a cool,temperate deciduous broadleaf forest at‘Takayama’super site in central Japan.Methods Daily photosynthetic capacity was assessed by in situ canopy leaf area index(LAI),(LAI×Vcmax[single-leaf photosynthetic capacity]),and the daily maximum rate of gross primary production(GPPmax)was estimated by an ecosystem carbon cycle model.We examined five VIs:normalized difference vegetation index(NDVI),enhanced vegetation index(EVI),green–red vegetation index(GRVI),chlorophyll index(CI)and canopy chlorophyll index(CCI),which were obtained by the in situ measurements of canopy spectral reflectance.Important Findings Our in situ observation of leaf and canopy characteristics,which were analyzed by an ecosystem carbon cycling model,revealed that their phenological changes are responsible for seasonal and interannual variations in canopy photosynthesis.Significant correlations were found between the five VIs and canopy photosynthetic capacity over the seasons and years;four of the VIs showed hysteresis-type relationships and only CCI showed rather linear relationship.Among the VIs examined,we applied EVI–GPPmax relationship to EVI data obtained by Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer to estimate the temporal and spatial variation in GPPmax over central Japan.Our findings would improve the accuracy of satellite-based estimate of forest photosynthetic productivity in fine spatial and temporal resolutions,which are necessary for detecting any response of terrestrial ecosystem to meteorological fluctuations.