Coupling relationship and genetic mechanisms of shelf-edge delta and deep-water fan source-to-sink:A case study in Paleogene Zhuhai Formation in south subsag of Baiyun Sag,Pearl River Mouth Basin,China

The coupling relationship between shelf-edge deltas and deep-water fan sand bodies is a hot and cutting-edge field of international sedimentology and deep-water oil and gas exploration.Based on the newly acquired high-resolution 3D seismic,logging and core data of Pearl River Mouth Basin(PRMB),this paper dissected the shelf-edge delta to deep-water fan(SEDDF)depositional system in the Oligocene Zhuhai Formation of Paleogene in south subsag of Baiyun Sag,and revealed the complex coupling relationship from the continental shelf edge to deep-water fan sedimentation and its genetic mechanisms.The results show that during the deposition of the fourth to first members of the Zhuhai Formation,the scale of the SEDDF depositional system in the study area showed a pattern of first increasing and then decreasing,with deep-water fan developed in the third to first members and the largest plane distribution scale developed in the late stage of the second member.Based on the development of SEDDF depositional system along the source direction,three types of coupling relationships are divided,namely,deltas that are linked downdip to fans,deltas that lack downdip fans and fans that lack updip coeval deltas,with different depositional characteristics and genetic mechanisms.(1)Deltas that are linked downdip to fans:with the development of shelf-edge deltas in the shelf area and deep-water fans in the downdip slope area,and the strong source supply and relative sea level decline are the two key factors which control the development of this type of source-to-sink(S2S).The development of channels on the continental shelf edge is conducive to the formation of this type of S2S system even with weak source supply and high sea level.(2)Deltas that lack downdip fans:with the development of shelf edge deltas in shelf area,while deep water fans are not developed in the downdip slope area.The lack of“sources”and“channels”,and fluid transformation are the three main reasons for the formation of this type of S2S system.(3)Fans that lack updip coeval deltas:with the development of deep-water fans in continental slope area and the absence of updip coeval shelf edge deltas,which is jointly controlled by the coupling of fluid transformation at the shelf edge and the“channels”in the continental slope area.

Discovery and inspiration of large-and medium-sized glutenite-rich oil and gas fields in the eastern South China Sea:An example from Paleogene Enping Formation in Huizhou 26 subsag,Pearl River Mouth Basin

Based on the practice of oil and gas exploration in the Huizhou Sag of the Pearl River Mouth Basin,the geochemical indexes of source rocks were measured,the reservoir development morphology was restored,the rocks and minerals were characterized microscopically,the measured trap sealing indexes were compared,the biomarker compounds of crude oil were extracted,the genesis of condensate gas was identified,and the reservoir-forming conditions were examined.On this basis,the Paleogene Enping Formation in the Huizhou 26 subsag was systematically analyzed for the potential of oil and gas resources,the development characteristics of large-scale high-quality conglomerate reservoirs,the trapping effectiveness of faults,the hydrocarbon migration and accumulation model,and the formation conditions and exploration targets of large-and medium-sized glutenite-rich oil and gas fields.The research results were obtained in four aspects.First,the Paleogene Wenchang Formation in the Huizhou 26 subsag develops extensive and thick high-quality source rocks of semi-deep to deep lacustrine subfacies,which have typical hydrocarbon expulsion characteristics of"great oil generation in the early stage and huge gas expulsion in the late stage",providing a sufficient material basis for hydrocarbon accumulation in the Enping Formation.Second,under the joint control of the steep slope zone and transition zone of the fault within the sag,the large-scale near-source glutenite reservoirs are highly heterogeneous,with the development scale dominated hierarchically by three factors(favorable facies zone,particle component,and microfracture).The(subaqueous)distributary channels near the fault system,with equal grains,a low mud content(<5%),and a high content of feldspar composition,are conducive to the development of sweet spot reservoirs.Third,the strike-slip pressurization trap covered by stable lake flooding mudstone is a necessary condition for oil and gas preservation,and the NE and nearly EW faults obliquely to the principal stress have the best control on traps.Fourth,the spatiotemporal configuration of high-quality source rocks,fault transport/sealing,and glutenite reservoirs controls the degree of hydrocarbon enrichment.From top to bottom,three hydrocarbon accumulation units,i.e.low-fill zone,transition zone,and high-fill zone,are recognized.The main area of the channel in the nearly pressurized source-connecting fault zone is favorable for large-scale hydrocarbon enrichment.The research results suggest a new direction for the exploration of large-scale glutenite-rich reservoirs in the Enping Formation of the Pearl River Mouth Basin,and present a major breakthrough in oil and gas exploration.

Geometry and 3D seismic characterisation of post-rift normal faults in the Pearl River Mouth Basin,northern South China Sea

Based on high-resolution 3D seismic data acquired in the Pearl(Zhujiang)River Mouth Basin of the northern South China Sea,this study investigated the geometry,spatial extension,and throw distribution of the post-rift normal fault through detailed seismic interpretation and fault modeling.A total of 289 post-rift normal faults were identified in the study area and can be classified into four types:(1)isolated normal faults above the carbonate platform;(2)isolated normal faults cutting through the carbonate platform;(3)conjugate normal faults,and(4)connecting normal faults.Throw distribution analysis on the fault planes show that the vertical throw profiles of most normal fault exhibit flat-topped profiles.Isolated normal faults above the carbonate platform exhibit roughly concentric ellipses with maximum throw zones in the central section whereas the normal faults cutting through the carbonate platform miss the lowermost section due to the chaotic seismic reflections in the interior of the carbonate platform.The vertical throws of conjugate normal faults anomalously decrease toward their intersection region on the fault plane whereas the connecting normal faults present two maximum throw zones in the central section of the fault plane.According to the symmetric elliptical distribution model of fault throw,an estimation was made indicating that normal faults cutting through the carbonate platform extended downward between-1308 s and-1780 s(two-way travel time)in depth and may not penetrate the entire Liuhua carbonate platform.Moreover,it is observed that the distribution of karst caves on the top of the carbonate platform disaccord with those of hydrocarbon reservoirs and the post-rift normal faults cutting through the carbonate platform in the study area.We propose that these karst caves formed most probably by corrosive fluids derived from magmatic activities during the Dongsha event,rather than pore waters or hydrocarbons.

Deep-water Depositional Features of Miocene Zhujiang Formation in Baiyun Sag,Pearl River Mouth Basin

Eleven lithofacies and five lithofacies associations were indentified in the Miocene Zhujiang Formation on the basis of detailed core analysis. It could he determined that three depositional types developed, namely submarine fan, basin and deep-water traction current. Six microfacies were further recognized within the fan, including main channels in the inner fan, distributary channels in the middle fan, inter-channels, levees and the outer fan. The lower Zhujiang Formation, mainly sandstone associations, was inner fan and inner-middle fan deposits of the basin fan and the slope fan. The middle part, mainly mudstone associations, was outer fan deposits. With the transgression, the submarine fan was finally replaced by the basinal pelagic deposits which were dominated by mudstone associations, siltstone associations, and deep-water limestone associations. During the weak gravity flow activity, the lower channels, the middle-upper outer fans and basin deposits were strongly modified by the deep-water traction current. The identification of the deep-water traction deposition in Miocene Zhujiang Formation would be of great importance. It could be inferred that the deep- water traction current had been existing after the shelf-break formation since the Late Oligocene （23.8 Ma） in the Baiyun sag, influencing and controlling the sediment composition, the distribution, and depositional processes. It would provide great enlightenment to the paleo-oceanic current circulation in the northern South China Sea.

Tectonic-thermal history and hydrocarbon potential of the Pearl River Mouth Basin,northern South China Sea:Insights from borehole apatite fission-track thermochronology

The Pearl River Mouth Basin(PRMB)is one of the most petroliferous basins on the northern margin of the South China Sea.Knowledge of the thermal history of the PRMB is significant for understanding its tectonic evolution and for unraveling its poorly studied source-rock maturation history.Our investigations in this study are based on apatite fission-track(AFT)thermochronology analysis of 12 cutting samples from 4 boreholes.Both AFT ages and length data suggested that the PRMB has experienced quite complicated thermal evolution.Thermal history modeling results unraveled four successive events of heating separated by three stages of cooling since the early Middle Eocene.The cooling events occurred approximately in the Late Eocene,early Oligocene,and the Late Miocene,possibly attributed to the Zhuqiong II Event,Nanhai Event,and Dongsha Event,respectively.The erosion amount during the first cooling stage is roughly estimated to be about 455-712 m,with an erosion rate of 0.08-0.12 mm/a.The second erosion-driven cooling is stronger than the first one,with an erosion amount of about 747-814 m and an erosion rate between about 0.13-0.21 mm/a.The erosion amount calculated related to the third cooling event varies from 800 m to 3419 m,which is speculative due to the possible influence of the magmatic activity.

Characteristics of the turbidite fan in the Wenchang Formation of the Enping Sag, Pearl River Mouth Basin, China and its hydrocarbon significance

A turbidite fan in the Eocene upper Wenchang Formation in the Enping Sag, Pearl River Mouth Basin （PRMB） has been studied using seismic, logging and borehole data. The fan is characterized by parallel progradation on the dip seismic profile and is mound-shaped or lenticular-shaped on the strike seismic profile. The study of the core and logging data from well EP17-3-1, which is located in the front side of the turbidite fan, shows that this fan is a set of normal grading sand beds, interbedded within thick dark grey mudstones of semi-deep to deep lake deposits in the Wenchang Formation. The fan is interpreted as a sand/mud-rich turbidite fan that has an area of over 140 km2 and a maximum thickness of over 340 m. Combined with a study of the regional geological background and previous provenance analysis of the Eocene Wenchang Formation, the main potential provenances for the turbidite fan are considered to be the Panyu low-uplift and northern fault terrace zone. The Enping Sag is considered to be a half graben-like basin whose north side is faulted and whose south side is overlapped. Basement subsidence in the Eocene was mainly controlled by boundary faults which dip relatively steeply on the north side, causing the subsidence center of the Enping Sag in this stage to be close to the north boundary faults. Sustained faults developed in the Enping Sag during the Eocene caused an increase of the relative height difference between the north and the south uplift zone in the Enping Sag. Affected by the second episode of the Zhuqiong movement （39-36 Ma） in late Eocene, sediments which had accumulated on the Panyu low-uplift zone were triggered and moved toward the subsidence center of the Enping Sag and formed the turbidite fan. The second episode of the Zhuqiong movement is the most important triggering factor for the formation of the turbidite fan in the Wenchang Formation. Seismic attribute characterization shows that the low frequency energy is enhanced and high frequency energy is weakened when seismic waves propagate through the oil-bearing zone in this fan. Amplitude versus offset （AVO） anomalies are observed in the seismic data and abnormally high pressure is encountered. The turbidite fan in the Wenchang Formation has provided important information for sedimentary evolution in deep layers of the Enping Sag and pointed to a new direction for the hydrocarbon exploration in the study area.

Chlorite cement and its effect on the reservoir quality of sandstones from the Panyu low-uplift,Pearl River Mouth Basin

Based on porosity and permeability measurements, mercury porosimetry measurements, thin section analyses, SEM observations, X-ray diffraction （XRD） analysis and granulometric analyses, diagenetic features of reservoir sandstones taken from the Zhuhai formation in the Panyu low-uplift of the Pear River Mouth Basin were examined. This study shows that chlorite cements are one of the most important diagenetic features of reservoir sandstones. The precipitation of chlorite was controlled by multiple factors and its development occurred early in eo-diagenesis and continued till Stage A of middle diagenesis. The precipitation of chlorite at the early stage was mainly affected by the sedimentary environment and provenance. Abundant Fe- and Mg-rich materials were supplied during the deposition of distributary channel sediments in the deltaic front setting and mainly in alkaline conditions. With the burial depth increasing, smectite and kaolinite tended to be transformed into chlorite. Smectite cements were completely transformed into chlorite in sandstones of the studied area. Volcanic lithics rich in Fe and Mg materials were dissolved and released Fe2＋ and Mg 2＋ into the pore water. These cations precipitated as chlorite cements in middle diagenesis in an alkaline diagenetic environment. Chlorite coatings acted as porosity and permeability, thus helping preserve cements in the chlorite cemented sandstones. The reservoir quality of chlorite cemented sandstones is much better than sandstones without chlorite cements. Chlorite cements play an important role in the reservoir evolution that was mainly characterized by preserving intergranular porosity and forming better pore-throat structures of sandstones.

Genetic pattern of belt-wide petroliferous phenomenon in the eastern Pearl River Mouth Basin and its practical application

The Pearl River Mouth Basin （PRMB） covers an area of approximately 20× 104 km2.However,oil-gas fields detected in this area thus far are highly concentrated and controlled predominantly by second-order structural belts,the seven largest of which aggregate proved oil reserves of 7.7× 108 m3,accounting for 86％ of the total discovered reserve in the basin.These second-order structures have one common phenomenon：oil is contained in all traps present in them.In other words,they are all belt-wide petroliferous reservoirs.Research has identified eight types of second-order structural belts under two categories in the eastern PRMB.Their petroliferous properties are subject to three typical constraints：petroliferous properties of subsags hosting these structural belts,locations of these belts in the petroleum system,and availability of traps prior to the hydrocarbon expulsion and migration.The formation and distribution of oil reservoirs in these belts are characterized by subsag-belt integration and ＂three-in-one＂.The former indicates that sags and the second-order structural belts within the supply range of the sags constitute the basic units of hydrocarbon accumulations and are therefore inseparable.The latter indicates that a belt-wide petroliferous second-order structural belt always contains three important elements：hydrocarbon richness,effective pathway and pre-existing traps.

Detrital K-feldspar^(40)Ar/^(39)Ar Ages:Source Constraints of the Lower Miocene Sandstones in the Pearl River Mouth Basin,South China Sea

The South China Sea began to outspread in the Oligocene. A great quantity of terraneous detritus was deposited in the northern continental shelf of the sea, mostly in Pearl River Mouth Basin, which constituted the main paleo-Pearl River Delta. The delta developed for a long geological time and formed a superimposed area. Almost all the oil and gas fields of detrital rock reservoir distribute in this delta. Thirty-three oil sandstone core samples in the Zhujiang Formation, lower Miocene （23-16 Ma）, were collected from nine wells. The illite samples with detrital K feldspar （Kfs） separated from these sandstone cores in four sub-structural belts were analysed by the high-precision 40Ar/39Ar laser stepwise heating technique. All 33 illite 40Ar/39Ar data consistently yielded gradually rising age spectra at the low-temperature steps until reaching age plateaus at mid-high temperature steps. The youngest ages corresponding to the beginning steps were interpreted as the hydrocarbon accumulation ages and the plateau ages in mid-high temperature steps as the contributions of the detrital feldspar representing the ages of the granitic parent rocks in the provenances. The ages of the detrital feldspar from the Zhujiang Formation in the four sub-structural belts were different： （1） the late Cretaceous ages in the Lufeng 13 fault structural belt; （2） the late Cretaceous and early Cretaceous-Jurassic ages in the Huizhou 21 buried hill-fault belt; （3） the Jurassic and Triassic ages in the Xijiang 24 buried hill-fault belt; and （4） the early Cretaceous - late Jurassic ages in the Panyu 4 oil area. These detrital feldspar 4~Ar/39Ar ages become younger and younger from west to east, corresponding to the age distribution of the granites in the adjacent Guangdong Province, Southern China.

Astronomical Dating of the Middle Miocene Hanjiang Formation in the Pearl River Mouth Basin,South China Sea

The Hanjiang Formation of Langhian age （middle Miocene） in the Pearl River Mouth Basin （PRMB）, South China Sea consists of deltaic siliciclastic and neritic shelf carbonate rhythmic alternations, which form one of the potential reservoirs of the basin. To improve stratigraphic resolutions for hydrocarbon prospecting and exploration in the basin, the present study undertakes spectral analysis of high-resolution natural gamma-ray （NGR） well-logging record to determine the dominant frequency components and test whether Milankovitch orbital signals are recorded in rhythmic successions. Analytical results indicate the orbital cycles of precession （~19 ka and ~23 ka）, obliquity （-41 ka）, and eccentricity （~100 ka and --405 ka）, which provide the strong evidence for astronomically driven climate changes in the rhythmic alternation successions. Within biochronological constraint, a high-resolution astronomical timescale was constructed through the astronomical tuning of the NGR record to recent astronomically calculated variation of Earth＇s orbit. The astronomically tuned timescale can be applied to calculate astronomical ages for the geological events and bioevents recognized throughout the period. The first downhole occurrences of foraminifers Globorotalia peripheroronda and Globigerinoides sicanus are dated at 14.546 Ma and 14.919 Ma, respectively, which are slightly different from earlier estimates in the South China Sea. When compared with the global sea-level change chart, the astronomical estimate for the sequences recognized based on microfossil distributions have the same end time but the different initiation time. This is probably due to the local or regional tectonic activities superimposed on eustatic rise which postponed the effect of global sea-level rising. Astronomical timescale also resolves the depositional evolution history for the Langhian Stage （middle Miocene） with a variation that strongly resembles that of Earth＇s orbital eccentricity predicted from 13.65 Ma to 15.97 Ma. We infer that the main factor controlling the variability of the sedimentation rate in the Hanjiang Formation is related to the ^-405-ka-period eccentricity.

Petroleum Migration Characteristics in the Northeastern Part of the Baiyun Depression,Pearl River Mouth Basin,South China Sea

This paper investigates the origin and migration characteristics of petroleum in the northeastern part of the Baiyun Depression,Pearl River Mouth Basin(PRMB).The discovered petroleum in the study area is mainly located in the Lower Zhujiang Member(N_(1)z^(2))and mainly originated from the Enping Formation source rocks in the eastern sag.Active faults(vertical migration)and N_(1)z^(2)sandstones(lateral migration)acted as the petroleum migration systems.The fault activities in the Dongsha event controlled the episodic petroleum migration.Fractures in the fault zones provided effective conduits,and overpressure was the driving force.The vertical migration could not cross the fault zones laterally.The petroleum injection areas in the carrier beds were the contact zones of petroleum-migration faults and carrier beds.The lateral migration was steady-state migration,and buoyancy was the driving force.The migration pathways in the carrier beds were controlled by the structural morphology.Secondary petroleum migration in the study area could be divided into two parts:vertical migration along the fractures in the fault zones and lateral migration through preferential petroleum migration pathways(PPMPs)in the carrier beds.The petroleum migration behaviors,including migrating direction,driving force,and migration pattern,in the faults and sandstone carrier beds were quite different.This study provides a typical example for comprehending secondary migration processes and has great importance for determining future exploration targets in the deep-water area of the PRMB.

Microbial Community Composition and Function in Sediments from the Pearl River Mouth Basin

This study was conducted to characterize the diversity and function of microbial communities in marine sediments of the Pearl River Mouth Basin(PRMB)in the South China Sea.The results showed that the bacterial and archaeal communities varied greatly with depth.Proteobacteria in bacterial communities and Nitrososphaeria and Woesearchaeota in archaeal communities were dominant in the shallow sediments(1-40 cm),while Chloroflexi in bacterial communities and Bathyarchaeia in archaeal communities were dominant in the deep sediments(50-200 cm).Regarding ecological functions based on the metatranscriptomic data,genes involved in various pathways of nitrogen metabolism and sulfur metabolism were observed in the tested sediment samples.Metagenomic analysis revealed that Proteobacteria contribute the most to nearly all genes involved in nitrogen and sulfur metabolism.Moreover,Thaumarchaeota contribute the most to certain genes involved in nitrification,denitrification and assimilatory sulfate reduction pathways.The most abundant bacterial genus,Candidatus Scalindua,is crucial for nitrification,dissimilatory nitrate reduction,denitrification and assimilatory sulfate reduction pathways.

Structural Characteristics and its Significances on Hydrocarbon Accumulation in the Yunkai Low Uplift,Pearl River Mouth Basin

The Yunkai low uplift with low exploration degree is close to the Baiyun sag,and has hydrocarbon exploration potential in the deepwater area of the Pearl River Mouth Basin.Based on seismic and drilling data,balanced profiles and growth strata,this paper mainly discusses geological structures and formation processes of the Yunkai low uplift,and also analyzes the characteristics of fault system and their influence on hydrocarbon migration and accumulation.The EWtrending basement faults divide the Yunkai low uplift into two parts,i.e.the southern sector and the northern sector.The northern sector is a relatively wide and gentle uplift,while the southern sector is composed of two secondary half-grabens with faulting in the south and overlapping in the north.The Yunkai low uplift experienced three major formation stages,including the rapid uplifting stage during the deposition period of the Eocene Wenchang Formation,the slow uplifting stage during the deposition period of the Late Eocene-Middle Miocene Enping-Hanjiang formations,and the whole burial stage from the Middle Miocene to present.The extensional faults in the Yunkai low uplift and its adjacent areas strike mainly along the NW,NWW and near-EW directions.Also,the strikes of faults present a clockwise rotation from the deep to the shallow strata.According to effects of faults on hydrocarbon accumulation the faults in the Yunkai low uplift and its adjacent areas can be divided into trap-controlled faults and source-controlled faults.The trap-controlled faults control trap development and can effectively seal oil and gas.The source-controlled faults connect directly source rocks and reservoirs,which are highly active during the rifting stage and weakly active since the Miocene.This activity features of the source-controlled faults is beneficial to migration of the early crude oil from the Baiyun sag to the high part of the Yunkai low uplift,but is not good for migration of the late natural gas.In the Yunkai low uplift and its adjacent areas,the traps in the deep Zhuhai and Enping formations that are close to source rocks in the Baiyun sag should be the favorable exploration objectives.

Huizhou Movement and its significance in Pearl River Mouth Basin, China

The Huizhou Movement refers to the Middle Eocene tectonic transition from the early to the late Wenchang Rifting stage(about 43 Ma ago) in the Pearl River Mouth Basin. Based on seismic reflection, drilling, logging and geological data, fault characteristic analysis, denudation thickness recovery, magmatism statistics, regional tectonic dynamics comparison and other methods are used to reveal the characteristics, properties and dynamic mechanism of the Huizhou Movement. The Huizhou Movement mainly shows the North-South transition of rifting and the migration along the faults, basement uplift, magmatic diapir and stratigraphic denudation. It is believed that the Huizhou Movement is a comprehensive reflection of plate interaction and lithospheric thinning process in the Pearl River Mouth Basin, which is closely related to the transition of lithosphere from initial rifting to rapid thinning, the India-Eurasia hard collision and the change of subduction direction of the Pacific plate. The Huizhou Movement has significant influence and control on the Paleogene hydrocarbon-generating sags and the development of hydrocarbon source rocks, sedimentary system and deep high-quality reservoir, hydrocarbon migration and accumulation in the Pearl River Mouth Basin.

Structural Variability and Rifting Process of the Segmented Cenozoic Pearl River Mouth Basin,Northern Continental Margin of the South China Sea

The Pearl River Mouth Basin(PRMB)is an important area for studying the evolution of continental marginal basins in the northern South China Sea(SCS),but the structural variability and spatiotemporal rifting process remains poorly understood.This study investigates the differential structural features of the eastern,middle and western PRMB,as well as the extensional deformation laws in operation during the rifting stage,according to an integrated analysis of geometric characteristics and kinematic parameters,i.e.,horizontal displacement and stretching factors of basin and crust.The PRMB underwent at least three phases of intense extension,which varied in time and space.(1)During the middle Eocene,most sags in the PRMB were intensely stretched and high-angle planar to listric boundary faults controlled the wedge-shaped stratigraphic geometry.(2)During the late Eocene-to-early Oligocene,the stratigraphic geometry of the sags was slightly wedge-shaped and continuously controlled by boundary faults,however,the extensional strength decreased relatively in the Northern depression zone,but increased in the Southern depression zone.(3)During the late Oligocene,the extension was extremely weak in the northeast PRMB,but relatively strong in the southwest PRMB,leading to tabular stratigraphic geometry in the northeast PRMB,but localized slightly wedge-shaped stratigraphic geometry in the southwest.The southwest PRMB still underwent relatively strong extension during the early Miocene.The southwest PRMB that was induced by a small-scale localized mantle convection system constantly rifted during the late Oligocene,controlled by the weak lithosphere,westward(southwestward)diachronous opening and southward jump of the ocean ridge.The applied quantitative parameters and spatiotemporal rifting process may be used as a reference with which to study the segmented continental margin rifts.

Feature,genetic model and distribution of calcareous insulating layers in marine strata of western Pearl River Mouth basin in north of South China Sea

We have systematically investigated the feature, genetic model and distribution of calcareous insulating layers in marine strata of the Ⅰ oil group in member 2 of Zhujiang formation(ZJ2I oil formation), western Pearl River Mouth basin(PRMB) in the north of the South China Sea by using data such as cores, thin sections, X-ray diffraction of whole-rock, and calcite cement carbon and oxygen isotopes. The lithology of the calcareous insulating layers in the study area is mainly composed of the terrigenous clastic bioclastic limestone and a small amount of fine-grained calcareous sandstone. On this basis, two genetic models of calcareous insulating layers are established, including the evaporation seawater genetic model and shallow burial meteoric water genetic model. The calcareous insulating layers of the evaporation seawater genetic model developed in the foreshore subfacies, mainly at the top of the 1-1 strata and 1-3 strata. The calcareous insulating layers of the shallow burial meteoric water genetic model developed in the backshore subfacies, primarily in the 1-2 strata.

The distribution of dimethylcarbazoles in oils from the Pearl River Mouth Basin, South China Sea

C2-carbazole isomers have been investigated in crude oils from the Hui-Liu Structure Ridge (HLSR) in the Pearl River Mouth Basin (PRMB), South China Sea. The NH shielded isomer, as well as the NH partially shielded isomers, was detected in high abundance and the NH exposed isomers in lower abundance. A small-enrichment trend of 1,8-dimethylcarbazole (DMC) was observed in crude oils along the western part of HLSR (WPHLSR), which may indicate little effect of migration on the C2-carbazole distributions. Two strikingly different distribution patterns of NH partially shielded isomers were observed in the reservoirs along the WPHLSR: one with a preference of 1,3- and 1,6-DMCs and the other with a preference of 1,4- and 1,5-DMCs. All of the oils occurring in the Upper reservoirs have a preference of 1,3- and 1,6-DMCs, whereas those trapped in the Lower reservoirs show a preference of 1,4- and 1,5-DMCs, which may indicate there are two petroleum migration systems in the WPHLSR.

Structural and Sedimentary Characteristics of Hydrocarbon-Rich Sags in Lacustrine Sub-Basin of Half Graben Type, Pearl River Mouth Basin, South China Sea

Pearl River Mouth Basin undergoes complex tectonic evolution processes and forms lacustrine,transitional and marine sediments.Drilling shows that there exist large petroleum reserves in the hydrocarbon-rich sags of Pearl River Mouth Basin,South China Sea.To reduce the risk,the exploration,structural and sedimentary characteristics of the hydrocarbon-rich sags should be identified and described.Drilling,seismic,and microfossil data are integrated to interpret the structural and sedimentary evolution of the hydrocarbon-rich sags in Pearl River Mouth Basin.By analyzing the tectonic and sedimentary evolutionary characteristics,three conclusions may be drawn:1、The present regional tectonic characteristics of the PRMB are formed by mutual interactions of the Eurasian Plate,Pacific Plate,Philippine Plate and Indian Plate.During the Paleocene to early Eocene and late Eocene and early Oligocene,the PRMB is at the rifting stage.During the late Oligocene,the PRMB was at the rifting-depression transitional stage.After the Oligocene,the PRMB is at the depression stage.2、Tectonic conditions control the sedimentation process in the hydrocarbon-rich sags.During the lacustrine sedimentation stage,synsedimentary faults and intense faulting control the sedimentation.During the transitional sedimentation stage,weak fault activity influences the deposition process in the hydrocarbon-rich sags.During the marine sedimentation stage,weak fault activity and depression activity control the deposition process in the hydrocarbon-rich sags.3、Tectonic evolution affects the deposition process.The lacustrine,transitional and marine sedimentation corresponds to different tectonic conditions.The lacustrine sedimentation is formed under fault activity during the rifting stage.The transitional sedimentation is formed under weak fault activity during the late rifting stage.The marine sedimentation is formed under weak fault activity and depression activity during the rifting-depression and depression stages.4、The half graben is beneficial for the formation of lacustrine source rocks,which is responsible for the hydrocarbon-rich sag.Therefore the half graben mode contributes to the hydrocarbon-rich sags.

The controls on the composition of biodegraded oils in the Liuhua11-1 Oilfield, Pearl River Mouth Basin, South China Sea

(1) The geochemical characteristics of extracted oils in three oil columns from the Liuhua11-1 Oilfield in the Pearl River Mouth Basin of South China Sea were analyzed in detail. The results show that the oil of Liuhua 11-1 Oilfield is generated from a single source rock, and belongs to maturate oil and their maturities have little difference.(2) The characteristics of saturated hydrocarbon gas chromatography,bulk composition, concentrations of biomarkers and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry of saturated hydrocarbon indicate that all samples studied were biodegraded, and the maximal level of biodegradation is less than PM level 6.(3) Bulk composition and the degree of biodegradation presented excellent gradient variations in the oil columns, and the highest degradation rates occurred at or near the oil–water contact(OWC). The key biomarkers of steranes and terpanes and maturity parameters of saturated hydrocarbon were not affected by degradation, which means that they are stable in slight to moderately biodegraded oils. Across the oilfield, the degree of biodegradation of LH11-1-3 was higher than that of LH11-1-1A and LH 11-1-4 in general.(4) We infer that the strong hydrodynamic conditions(tectonic control) and high reservoir temperatures(50–65 °C) are the primary controllers of the degree of oil biodegradation in the Liuhua 11-1 Oilfield and the late hydrocarbon accumulation may also have an important effect. The bulk composition and degree of biodegradation with excellent gradient variations in the oil columns were obviously controlled by the vertical distance from its in situ place to OWC. The highest supply of nutrient at the OWC results in high abundance of microorganisms and the highest degradation rate. And the lateral variation in level of biodegradation across the oil reservoir may be mainly control by the salinity of bottom water, the supply of nutrient and the energy of the bottom water.

Evaluation of source rocks and prediction of oil and gas resources distribution in Baiyun Sag,Pearl River Mouth Basin,China

By conducting organic geochemical analysis of the samples taken from the drilled wells in Baiyun Sag of Pearl River Mouth Basin,China,the development characteristics of hydrocarbon source rocks in the sag are clarified.Reconstruct the current geothermal field of the sag and restore the tectonic-thermal evolution process to predict the type,scale,and distribution of resources in Baiyun Sag through thermal pressure simulation experiments and numerical simulation.The Baiyun Sag is characterized by the development of Paleogene shallow lacustrine source rocks,which are deposited in a slightly oxidizing environment.The source rocks are mainly composed of terrestrial higher plants,with algae making a certain contribution,and are oil and gas source rocks.Current geothermal field of the sag was reconstructed,in which the range of geothermal gradients is(3.5–5.2)℃/100 m,showing an overall increasing trend from northwest to southeast,with significant differences in geothermal gradients across different sub-sags.Baiyun Sag has undergone two distinct periods of extensional process,the Eocene and Miocene,since the Cenozoic era.These two periods of heating and warming events have been identified,accelerating the maturation and evolution of source rocks.The main body of ancient basal heat flow value reached its highest at 13.82 Ma.The basin modelling results show that the maturity of source rocks is significantly higher in Baiyun main sub-sag than that in other sub-sags.The Eocene Wenchang Formation is currently in the stage of high maturity to over maturity,while the Eocene Enping Formation has reached the stage of maturity to high maturity.The rock thermal simulation experiment shows that the shallow lacustrine mudstone of the Wenchang Formation has a good potential of generating gas from kerogen cracking with high gas yield and long period of gas window.Shallow lacustrine mudstone of the Enping Formation has a good ability to generate light oil,and has ability to generate kerogen cracking gas in the late stage.The gas yield of shallow lacustrine mudstone of the Enping Formation is less than that of shallow lacustrine mudstone of the Wenchang Formation and the delta coal-bearing mudstone of the Enping Formation.The numerical simulation results indicate that the source rocks of Baiyun main sub-sag generate hydrocarbons earlier and have significantly higher hydrocarbon generation intensity than other sub-sags,with an average of about 1200×10^(4)t/km^(2).Oil and gas resources were mainly distributed in Baiyun main sub-sag and the main source rocks are distributed in the 3^(rd)and 4~(th)members of Wenchang Formation.Four favorable zones are selected for the division and evaluation of migration and aggregation units:No.(1)Panyu 30 nose-shaped structural belt,No.(3)Liuhua 29 nose-shaped uplift belt and Liwan 3 nose-shaped uplift belt,No.(2)gentle slope belt of Baiyun east sag,and No.(8)Baiyun 1 low-uplift.