Effects of Desalination Processes on the Water Circulation and Earth System

Desalination is emerging as a promising alternative among various technologies to resolve water shortage. However, desalination requires a sufficient energy and cooling device and therefore poses limitations for its installation and application. In particular, many countries suffering water deficits are economically underdeveloped and cannot afford the technology. As this technology, which changes seawater into freshwater, has little environmental impact, developed countries will need to assist less developed countries to introduce this technology as a humanitarian effort. This will help reduce the number of countries that have experienced difficulty with development.

Salinization-Desalinization (SDS) Processes—A Linkage between Hula Valley and Lake Kinneret Ecosystem Management

The salinization process resulted in agricultural damage in the Hula Valley and water quality deterioration in Lake Kinneret. Therefore, salinization-desalinization (SDS) processes have been emphasized in the last two decades. Global and regional extreme climatological events and water scarcity strengthen the link between Hula Valley and Lake Kinneret management design. A bond between optimizing Hula agricultural maintenance and Kinneret water quality protection is conclusively suggested. Saline contribution originated from the southern Hula Valley region to the underground and surface water is higher than from the northern organic soil. The impact of eastern water Intrusion from the Golan Heights as surface waters, river discharge and underground seepage into the Hula Valley represent north-south gradient enhancement. Salinized surface water contribution from the Hula Valley to Lake Kinneret is unwanted because presently Kinneret desalinization management policy is critically required. The present salinization of surface and underground water in the Hula Valley indicates the upper limit suitable for agricultural crop optimization and the decline of salinity is crucial. Enhancement of the portion of Jordan water within the total balance in the valley is beneficial for Hula agricultural crops but serves as a disadvantage to Kinneret desalinization implementation. Therefore, the enhancement of lake water exchange is recommended.

Multi-effect distillation system for seawater desalination driven by tidal energy and low grade energy

A multi-effect distillation technology for seawater desalination driven by tidal energy and low grade energy is presented.In the system,tidal energy is utilized to supply power instead of coventional electric pumps during the operation,resulting in the decrease of dependence on steady electric power supply and a reduction in the running costs.According to the technological principle,a testing unit is designed and built.The effects of the feed seawater temperature and the heat source temperature on the unit performance are tested and analyzed.The experimental results show that the fresh water output is 27 kg/h when the heating water temperature is 65 ℃ and the absolute pressure is 25 kPa.The experimental and theoretical analysis results indicate that the appropriate heating water temperature is a key factor in ensuring the steady operation of the system.

Simulation Study on the Alkalized-salinized Grassland Ecosystem in the Songnen Plain

Using Object-oriented design and a new programming language JAVA, a physically-based model was built to simulate the hydrological, alkalization/de-alkalization and salinization/desalinization processes in soil. Furthermore, a process-based model was built to evaluate the dynamics of four herbaceous ecosystems (including dynamics of above-ground biomass, below-ground biomass, and litter biomass), each dominated by Aneurolepidium chinense (Trin.) Kitag., Chloris virgata Sw., Puccinellia tenuiflora (Turcz.) Scribn. et Merr. and Suaeda glauca Bunge. This model is a daily-time step model, suitable for simulating hydrological, alkalization/de-alkalization and salinization/desalinization processes of heterogeneous soil, and growth dynamics of different grassland communities. With climatic data and experimental data of Changling Experimental Site in Jilin Province, the soil moisture content (in 1991, 1996, 1997 and 1998), soil salt concentration, exchangeable cation percentage and pH in soil and growth dynamics of these four sorts of grassland communities (in 1991) were simulated and the results were verified to be in accord with observed data.

MXene Sediment-Based Poly(vinyl alcohol)/Sodium Alginate Aerogel Evaporator with Vertically Aligned Channels for Highly Efficient Solar Steam Generation

Solar-driven interfacial evaporation from seawater is considered an effective way to alleviate the emerging freshwater crisis because of its green and environmentally friendly characteristics.However,developing an evaporator with high efficiency,stability,and salt resistance remains a key challenge.MXene,with an internal photothermal conversion efficiency of 100%,has received tremendous research interest as a photothermal material.However,the process to prepare the MXene with monolayer is inefficient and generates a large amount of“waste”MXene sediments(MS).Here,MXene sediments is selected as the photothermal material,and a three-dimensional MXene sediments/poly(vinyl alcohol)/sodium alginate aerogel evaporator with vertically aligned pores by directional freezing method is innovatively designed.The vertical porous structure enables the evaporator to improve water transport,light capture,and high evaporation rate.Cotton swabs and polypropylene are used as the water channel and support,respectively,thus fabricating a self-floating evaporator.The evaporator exhibits an evaporation rate of 3.6 kg m^(-2)h^(-1)under one-sun illumination,and 18.37 kg m^(-2)of freshwater is collected in the condensation collection device after 7 h of outdoor sun irradiation.The evaporator also displays excellent oil and salt resistance.This research fully utilizes“waste”MS,enabling a self-floating evaporation device for freshwater collection.

Rational design of natural leather-based water evaporator for electricity generation and functional applications

In recent years,water evaporation-induced electricity has attracted a great deal of attention as an emerging green and renewable energy harvesting technology.Although abundant materials have been developed to fabricate hydrovoltaic devices,the limitations of high costs,inconvenient storage and transport,low environmental benefits,and unadaptable shape have restricted their wide applications.Here,an electricity generator driven by water evaporation has been engineered based on natural biomass leather with inherent properties of good moisture permeability,excellent wettability,physicochemical stability,flexibility,and biocompatibility.Including numerous nano/microchannels together with rich oxygen-bearing functional groups,the natural leather-based water evaporator,Leather_(Emblic-NPs-SA/CB),could continuously produce electricity even staying outside,achieving a maximum output voltage of∼3 V with six-series connection.Furthermore,the leather-based water evaporator has enormous potential for use as a flexible self-powered electronic floor and seawater demineralizer due to its sensitive pressure sensing ability as well as its excellent photothermal conversion efficiency(96.3%)and thus fast water evaporation rate(2.65 kg m^(−2)h^(−1)).This work offers a new and functional material for the construction of hydrovoltaic devices to harvest the sustained green energy from water evaporation in arbitrary ambient environments,which shows great promise in their widespread applications.

Nitrogen-doped microporous graphite-enhanced copper plasmonic effect for solar evaporation

Water scarcity is a global challenge,and solar evaporation technology offers a promising and eco-friendly solution for freshwater production.Photothermal conversion materials(PCMs)are crucial for solar evaporation.Improving photothermal conversion efficiency and reducing water evaporation enthalpy are the two key strategies for the designing of PCMs.The desired PCMs that combine both of these properties remain a challenging task,even with the latest advancements in the field.Herein,we developed copper nanoparticles(NPs)with different conjugated nitrogen-doped microporous carbon coatings(Cu@C–N)as PCMs.The microporous carbon enveloping layer provides a highly efficient pathway for water transport and a nanoconfined environment that protects Cu NPs and facilitates the evaporation of water clusters,reducing the enthalpy of water evaporation.Meanwhile,the conjugated nitrogen nodes form strong metal-organic coordination bonds with the surface of copper NPs,acting as an energy bridge to achieve rapid energy transfer and provide high solar-to-vapor conversion efficiency.The Cu@C–N exhibited up to 89.4%solar-to-vapor conversion efficiency and an evaporation rate of 1.94 kgm^(−2) h^(−1) under one sun irradiation,outperforming conventional PCMs,including carbon-based materials and semiconductor materials.These findings offer an efficient design scheme for high-performance PCMs essential for solar evaporators to address global water scarcity.

Highly efficient three-dimensional solar evaporator for zero liquid discharge desalination of high-salinity brine

Solar-driven interfacial evaporation is a promising technology for freshwater production from seawater,but salt accumulation on the evaporator surface hinders its performance and sustainability.In this study,we report a simple and green strategy to fabricate a three-dimensional porous graphene spiral roll(3GSR)that enables highly efficient solar evaporation,salt collection,and water production from near-saturated brine with zero liquid discharge(ZLD).The 3GSR design facilitates energy recovery,radial brine transport,and directional salt crystallization,thereby resulting in an ultrahigh evaporation rate of 9.05 kg m^(-2) h^(-1)6 in 25 wt%brine under 1-sun illumina-tion for 48 h continuously.Remarkably,the directional salt crystallization on its outer surface not only enlarges the evaporation area but also achieves an ultrahigh salt collection rate of 2.92 kg m^(-2) h^(-1),thus enabling ZLD desalination.Additionally,3GSR exhibits a record-high water production rate of 3.14 kg m^(-2) h^(-1) in an outdoor test.This innovative solution offers a highly efficient and continuous solar desalination method for water production and ZLD brine treatment,which has great implications for addressing global water scarcity and environmental issues arising from brine disposal.

Performance Evaluation of an Evaporative Cooling Pad for Humidification-Dehumidification Desalination

The perfect combination of renewable energy and desalination technologies is the key to meeting water demands in a cost-effective,efficient and environmentally friendly way.The desalination technique by humidificationdehumidification is non-conventional approach suitable for areas with low infrastructure(such as rural and decentralized regions)since it does not require permanent maintenance.In this study,this technology is implemented by using solar energy as a source of thermal power.A seawater desalination unit is considered,which consists of a chamber with two evaporators(humidifiers),a wetted porous material made of a corrugated cellulose cardboard and a condenser(dehumidifier).The evaporation system is tested with dry bulb temperature and relative air humidity data.The results of numerical simulations indicate that higher inlet air velocities(from 0.75 to 3 m/s)lead to a decrease in theΔT,ΔRH,and effectiveness.With the air remaining within the evaporator for 30 cm,the temperature differential increases to 5.7°C,accompanied by a 39%rise in relative humidity contrast.These changes result in a significant enhancement in humidification efficiency,achieving a remarkable efficiency level of 78%.However,a wettability value of 630 m^(2)/m^(3)leads to a smaller reduction of these parameters.Increasing the pad thickness,particularly to 0.3 m,improves performance by boostingΔT,ΔRH,and effectiveness,especially for pads with a wettability of 630 m^(2)/m^(3),for which superior performances are predicted by the numerical tests.

Pervaporation performance and characterization of hydrophilic ZSM-5 zeolite membranes for high inorganic acid and inorganic salts

The hydrophilic ZSM-5 zeolite membranes are applied to separate the inorganic acid solutions and inorganic acid/inorganic salt mixtures by pervaporation,and the membrane presents good stability,dehydration,and desalination performance.Influences of inorganic acid type(H_(2)SO_(4),H_(3)PO_(4),HNO_(3),and HCl),H_(2)SO_(4)concentration(1e6 mol·L^(-1)),test temperature(60-90℃)and inorganic acid/inorganic salt type(2 mol·L^(-1)H_(2)SO_(4)and sulfate,2 mol·L^(-1)H3PO4 and phosphate)on the pervaporation performance are investigated in this work.Either for concentrating 3%(mass)H_(2)SO_(4)solution or consecutive dehydrating 20%(mass)H_(2)SO_(4)solution,the hydrophilic ZSM-5 zeolite membrane has a good dehydration performance and stability.Even though the H_(2)SO_(4)concentration and test temperature are increased to 6 M and 90℃,only H_(2)O molecules could pass through the membrane and pH value of the permeation is kept neutral.Besides,the membrane has good dehydration and desalination performance for H_(2)SO_(4)/sulfates and H_(3)PO_(4)/phosphate mixtures,and the rejection of natrium salt,molysite,and magnesium is almost 100%.

An efficient strategy for the preparation of MIL-53(Al)-NH_(2)membranes with high ion selectivity and desalination performance

The efficient extraction of sodium(Na^(+))and lithium(Li^(+))from seawater and salt lakes is increasingly demanding due to their great application value in chemical industries.However,coexisting cations such as divalent calcium(Ca^(2+))and magnesium(Mg^(2+))ions are at the subnanometer scale in diameter,similar to target monovalent ions,making ion separation a great challenge.Here,we propose a simple and fast secondary growth method for the preparation of MIL-53(Al)-NH_(2)membranes on the surface of anodic aluminum oxide.Such membranes contain angstrom-scale(~7Å)channels for the entrance of small monovalent ions and water molecules,endowing the selectivities for monovalent cations over divalent cations and water over salt molecules.The resulting high-connectivity MIL-53(Al)-NH_(2)membranes exhibit excellent ion separation performance(a selectivity of 121.42 for Na^(+)/Ca^(2+)and 93.81 for Li^(+)/Mg^(2+))and desalination performance(a water/salt selectivity of up to 5196).This work highlights metal–organic framework membranes as potential candidates for realizing ion separation and desalination in liquid treatment.

Recent advances in flat sheet mixed matrix membrane modified by Mg-based layered double hydroxides(LDHs)for salt and organic compound separations

Magnesium(Mg)is a widely used and attractive metal,known for its unique physical and chemical properties,and it has been employed in the manufacture of many practical materials.Layered Double Hydroxides(LDHs),particularly Mg-based LDHs,rank among the most prevalent two-dimensional materials utilized in separation processes,which include adsorption,extraction,and membrane technology.The high popularity of Mg-based LDHs in separation applications can be attributed to their properties,such as excellent hydrophilicity,high surface area,ion exchangeability,and adjustable interlayer space.Currently,polymer membranes play a pivotal role in semi-industrial and industrial separation processes.Consequently,the development of polymer membranes and the mitigation of their limitations have emerged as compelling topics for researchers.Several methods exist to enhance the separation performance and anti-fouling properties of polymer membranes.Among these,incorporating additives into the membrane polymer matrix stands out as a cost-effective,straightforward,readily available,and efficient approach.The use of Mg-based LDHs,either in combination with other materials or as a standalone additive in the polymer membrane matrix,represents a promising strategy to bolster the separation and anti-fouling efficacy of flat sheet mixed matrix polymer membranes.This review highlights Mg-based LDHs as high-potential additives designed to refine flat sheet mixed matrix polymer membranes for applications in wastewater treatment and brackish water desalination.

Seawater desalination of arid regions:comparing the policy of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and Indonesia

Problems with clean water in coastal areas alongside an increase in population and community economic activities have diversified community activities.Coastal settlements bordering the high seas are characterized as arid areas with a lack of clean water.Here,the use of the range groundwater supply against seawater intrusion means that the water consumed by the community tastes salty and brackish.The availability of abundant seawater,processed through desalination technology,can be used to meet the daily clean water needs of coastal communities.Sustainable development goal(SDG)6 Water and Sanitation is concerned with ensuring that everyone has access to clean water and sanitation.In this regard,desalination technology is considered viable to achieve the SDGs in the environmental sector.Some countries have focused on using desalination technology to achieve target 6.4 by 2030.This goal aims to improve the efficiency of water use to reduce the number of people experiencing clean water scarcity by ensuring a sustainable supply of fresh water.The objective of this study is to examine the application of seawater desalination technology for clean water in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia(KSA)and Indonesia,and identify the implications of desalination policies in these countries.Comparative studies were conducted using secondary data and literature studies on transforming seawater into clean water with technology.KSA applies seawater desalination technology to meet water needs.However,in Indonesia,policymaking has not holistically examined the potential of using seawater desalination technology for clean water.Until now,unlike in the KSA,Indonesia has not addressed the importance of the use of desalination technology in state policy.

Numerical Study of the Efficiency of Multi-Layer Membrane Filtration in Desalination Processes

Multi-layer membrane filtration is a widely used technology for separating and purifying different components ofa liquid mixture. This technique involves passing the liquid mixture through a series of membranes with decreasing pore sizes, which allows for the separation of different components according to their molecular size. Thisstudy investigates the filtration process of a fluid through a two-dimensional porous medium designed forseawater desalination. The focus is on understanding the impact of various parameters such as the coefficientof friction, velocity, and the number of layers on filtration efficiency. The results reveal that the number of layersplays a crucial role in desalination, with an increase in layers leading to enhanced filtration quality, following apower law relationship. The study explores the influence of the coefficient of friction on filtration performance,emphasizing its significant effect on the number of particles filtered over time. Additionally, the role of the initialvelocity in filtration efficiency is examined, showing distinct effects at both high and low velocities. Biofouling isidentified as a factor influencing filtration, with an initial increase in filtered particles followed by a decline due toparticle accumulation in pores.

Development and interpretation of ISO 13205:2024,Marine technology-Seawater desalination-Vocabulary

Vocabulary is the most basic subject of standardization.Despite that individual terms related to seawater desalination have been mentioned in some standards and technical documents of ISO,WHO,and ASTM,the inconsistent expression might still induce ambiguity in communications among the participators in this area.Moreover,terms in these documents are not comprehensive.Consequently,ISO 13205:2024 is developed to eliminate the misunderstanding in both the academic and commercial communications.This paper expounds on the specific progress of the research in three aspects:background,drafting of ISO 13205:2024,and interpretation of ISO 13205:2024.The significance of the standard is also discussed.

Impacts of Climate Change on Seawater Temperature and Total Dissolved Solids: Challenges and Sustainable Solutions for Reverse Osmosis Desalination in the Arabian Gulf Region

This article examines the influence of seawater temperature and total dissolved solids (TDS) on reverse osmosis (RO) desalination in the Arabian Gulf region, with a focus on the impact of climate change. The study highlights the changes in seawater temperature and TDS levels over the years and discusses their effects on the efficiency and productivity of RO desalination plants. It emphasizes the importance of monitoring TDS levels and controlling seawater temperature to optimize water production. The article also suggests various solutions, including intensive pre-treatment, development of high-performance membranes, exploration of alternative water sources, and regulation of discharges into the Gulf, to ensure sustainable water supply in the face of rising TDS levels and seawater temperature. Further research and comprehensive monitoring are recommended to understand the implications of these findings and develop effective strategies for the management of marine resources in the Arabian Gulf.

Study of Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) Concentrations Factor of SWCC Al-Khobar Plant Seawater Intakes

This study presents a significant contribution to the field of water quality assessment and sustainable water management practices. By evaluating the levels of total dissolved solids (TDS) in seawater intakes within Al-Khobar desalination production system, the study addresses a crucial aspect of water treatment and environmental impact assessment. The findings provide valuable insights into the variations and trends of TDS levels across different phases of the system, highlighting the importance of monitoring and management strategies. The study provided both gravimetric total dissolved solids (TDS) and electrical conductivity (EC) measurements to analyze TDS calculation factor and evaluate measurement accuracy. Results revealed significant variations in TDS levels across the sampling locations, with phase-2 exhibiting higher levels and greater fluctuations. Phase-3 displayed similar trends but with lower TDS levels, while phase-4 showed slightly different behavior with higher average TDS levels. EC measurements demonstrated a strong correlation with TDS, providing a reliable estimation. However, additional methods such as gravimetric analysis should be employed to confirm TDS measurements. The findings contribute to understanding water quality in the Al-Khobar desalination system, aiding in monitoring, management, and decision-making processes for water treatment and environmental impact assessment. The study enhances the credibility of water quality assessments and supports sustainable water management practices.

Scenario-Based Assessment of the Water-Energy-Food Nexus in Kuwait: Insights for Effective Resource Management

The interdependency among water, food, and energy (WEF) in the GCC countries is strongly and closely interlinked, and is intensifying as demand for resources increases with population growth and changing consumption patterns, and are expected to be further compounded by the impacts of climate change. Therefore, integrated management of the three sectors is crucial to reduce trade-offs and build synergies among them. This paper presents a comprehensive framework to assess the WEF nexus in Kuwait as a representative case for the GCC countries. The framework consists of three main steps: 1) evaluating the influence of socio-economic development and climate change on water, energy, and food resources;2) generating scenario-based projections;and 3) conducting an extensive quantitative nexus analysis. The WEF interlinkages in Kuwait are modelled quantitatively using the Q-Nexus model, and current critical interdependencies are evaluated. Then, various WEF-Nexus scenarios were conducted for the year 2035 to explore the effects of management interventions in one sector on the other two sectors. The main findings are that per capita municipal water consumption is a major influencer on the WEF-nexus due to the heavy reliance on thermal desalination in municipal water supply in Kuwait, which is attributed to its energy intensity, financial cost, GHGs emissions, and environmental impacts on the marine and air environments. To reduce WEF trade-offs, mitigate risks, and build synergies among the three sectors, it is important to shift the current policy focus on supply-side management approach to the demand-side management and efficiency approaches.

Innovative Technologies for Large-Scale Water Production in Arid Regions: Strategies for Sustainable Development

Water scarcity in arid regions poses significant challenges to sustainable development and human well-being. This article explores both existing and innovative technologies and methods to produce large amounts of water to address these challenges effectively. Key approaches include atmospheric water generation, advanced desalination techniques, innovative water collection methods such as fog nets and dew harvesting, geothermal water extraction, and water recycling and reuse. Each method is evaluated for its feasibility with existing technology, potential time of implementation, required investments, and specific challenges. By leveraging these technologies and combining them into a multifaceted water management strategy, it is possible to enhance water security, support agricultural and industrial activities, and improve living conditions in arid regions. Collaborative efforts between governments, private sector entities, and research institutions are crucial to advancing these technologies and ensuring their sustainable implementation. The article provides a comprehensive overview of the current state of these technologies, their potential for large-scale application, and recommendations for future research and development.

Experimental Study on Corrosion of Stainless Steel in Low Temperature Multi effect Seawater Desalination

Starting from the corrosion mechanism,this paper analyzes the characteristics of various types of stainless steel and selects the best performance composite plate composite plate stainless steel.Analyze and select the most suitable corrosion detection method based on specific practical multi working conditions,discuss the interference factors that affect metal corrosion during experimental simulation,and the advantages of newly developed sheet metal.The new development of composite board panels,with the substrate and composite materials applying their respective capabilities for MED,will bring breakthrough progress to the scientific research and engineering applica-tion of composite boards.