How Does Urban Shrinkage Affect Land Use Efficiency?A Case Study of Shrinking Cities in Northeast China

The effect of urban shrinkage has gradually become a new topic.Theoretically,urban shrinkage may exert great influence on land use efficiency(LUE)through various urban subsystems,but there is currently limited research examining these pathways.Using the Super-SBM-Undesirable model and the Structural Equation Model(SEM),this study calculates the LUE of shrinking cities in Northeast China and simulates the process of urban shrinkage affecting LUE.To quantify the process of urban shrinkage affecting LUE,three mediation variables,namely the economy,public services,and innovation,are used as latent variables to apply SEM.The results show that urban shrinkage will affect LUE through a direct path and indirect paths.In the direct path,urban shrinkage leads to an improvement in LUE.In the indirect paths,the economy and innovation will transmit the negative effect of urban shrinkage on LUE,while public services will reverse this effect.An important contribution of this study is that it quantifies the paths of urban shrinkage affecting LUE,thereby expanding the understanding of urban shrinkage effect and laying a foundation for the sustainable development of shrinking cities.

THE BENCHMARK LAND PRICE SYSTEM AND URBANLAND USE EFFICIENCY IN CHINA

ABSTRACT: China began to introduce market principles and establish price mechanism to better manage land and improve land use efficiency in the late 1980s. Since then, land markets begin to emerge. A benchmark land price system, providing guidelines for land use rights selling and transferring, was established in order to overcome lack of market data and experiences in land transaction. The benchmark prices of land use rights are determined by land use, land use density (floor-land ratio), land grades, land improvement, and tenant resettlement costs. This paper first conducts a formal analysis based on modern urban economic theory. The formal model provides a theoretical foundation in which the benchmark land price system is assessed and evaluated in terms of land use and urban development. The paper then concludes that the benchmark price system has two theoretical problems. One is associated with the fact that floor-land ratio plays an important role in land price determination whereas the theory suggests the other way around. That is, floor-land ratio depends on land prices. The other problem is that the benchmark land price system does not provide adequate room for the substitution between land and capital inputs. The substitution is a key in achieving land use efficiency in land markets and urban development process. It is concluded that the practice of the benchmark land price system is at odd with reforms that aim to introduce market principles and mechanism to guide resource uses. Therefore, it is recommended that further land policy reform should be taken.

Response of ecosystem service value to land use/cover change in the northern slope economic belt of the Tianshan Mountains, Xinjiang, China

Land use/cover change(LUCC)is becoming more and more frequent and extensive as a result of human activities,and is expected to have a major impact on human welfare by altering ecosystem service value(ESV).In this study,we utilized remote sensing images and statistical data to explore the spatial-temporal changes of land use/cover types and ESV in the northern slope economic belt of the Tianshan Mountains in Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region,China from 1975 to 2018.During the study period,LUCC in the study region varied significantly.Except grassland and unused land,all the other land use/cover types(cultivated land,forestland,waterbody,and construction land)increased in areas.From 1975 to 2018,the spatial-temporal variations in ESV were also pronounced.The total ESV decreased by 4.00×10^(8) CNY,which was primarily due to the reductions in the areas of grassland and unused land.Waterbody had a much higher ESV than the other land use/cover types.Ultimately,understanding the impact of LUCC on ESV and the interactions among ESV of different land use/cover types will help improve existing land use policies and provide scientific basis for developing new conservation strategies for ecologically fragile areas.

Urban Land Use Efficiency and Contributing Factors in the Yangtze River Delta Under Increasing Environmental Restrictions in China

Evaluating urban land use efficiency(ULUE) provides insights into the interactions between land use systems and their external environment. Specifically, changes in ULUE are important for monitoring urban transformation in developing countries. In this study, using a traditional input-output index model, we incorporated slack-based measurements and undesirable outputs into a SBM-UN(slack-based measure-undesirable) model to investigate ULUE within the context of increasing environmental restrictions in China. The model was used to estimate the ULUE of 26 cities in the highly developed urban agglomeration of the Yangtze River Delta from 2000 to2018. The average ULUE in the Yangtze River Delta was relatively low compared to that of developed city regions in the European Union(EU) and North America and exhibited a U-shaped curve over the study period. Incorporating undesirable outputs, such as environmental pollution, into the model reduced ULUE by 19.06%. ULUE varied spatially, with the kernel density estimation exhibiting a bimodal distribution. Efficiency decomposition analysis showed that scale efficiency made a greater contribution to ULUE than pure technical efficiency. Based on our findings, recommended approaches to improve ULUE include optimizing factor allocation, reducing undesirable outputs, and increasing the effective output per land unit. The study suggests that ULUE and the SBM-UN model are useful planning tools for sustainable urban development.

Spatio-temporal characteristics and typical patterns of eco-efficiency of cultivated land use in the Yangtze River Economic Belt, China

Identifying the dynamics of the eco-efficiency of cultivated land use(ECLU)is important to balance food security and environmental protection.The Yangtze River Economic Belt(YREB)is a vital region of national strategic development in China.However,the spatio-temporal characteristics and typical patterns of the ECLU in the YREB remain unclear.This study aims to reveal the spatio-temporal characteristics of the ECLU by using the super-efficiency slack-based measure(SBM)and a spatial autocorrelation model.The typical patterns of the ECLU were classified based on a decision tree algorithm.The results indicate that the overall ECLU increased from 0.78 to 0.87 from 2000 to 2019,dropping sharply in 2003 before rising again.Different reaches had similar trends.The local indicators of spatial association(LISA)cluster reflect that the spatial distributions of high-high and low-low agglomeration varied dramatically among these years.The ECLU was divided into three typical patterns considering the restriction of agrochemicals and water resources(RAW),cultivated land and agrochemicals(RCA),as well as technology(RT).Most cities belonged to the low ECLU category in RT pattern.Fully understanding the spatio-temporal characteristics and classification of the ECLU will provide a reference for decision-makers to improve the ECLU in different regions.

Understanding the change of land space utilization efficiency with different functions and its coupling coordination: A case study of Urban Agglomeration in the Middle Reaches of the Yangtze River, China

Land spaces function in capacities of urban development,agricultural production,and ecological conservation,among many others.Research of land space utilization efficiency(LSUE)and coupling coordination relationships among its subsystems are significant for sustainable land space development.In this study,taking the Urban Agglomeration in the Middle Reaches of the Yangtze River(UAMRYR)as the study area,we establish a measurement index system to evaluate the LSUE(2000–2018)and analyze its coupling coordination degree by utilizing an improved coupling coordination model.The main results include the following.(1)The average efficiency levels of urban space and agricultural space in the UAMRYR increased 2000–2018,while the average efficiency of ecological space declined.(2)The spatial pattern of the LSUE values varied greatly,with the distributions of high-efficiency and low-efficiency levels significantly different.(3)The coupling degree of LSUE includes three types,i.e.,high-level coupling,break-in,and antagonism.Each coupling degree type was characterized by change over time.(4)The proportion of areas with high coupling coordination and moderate coupling coordination increased from 2000 to 2018,while the proportion of areas with basic coupling coordination,moderate imbalance,and serious imbalance declined during this period.Given that the spatial differentiation of the LSUE and its coupling coordination,it is necessary to implement a differential land space development strategy in the UAMRYR.This study is helpful to promote the efficient utilization and coordinated development of land space utilization systems.

Driving Mechanism of Urban Space Expansion in Luoyang, China

Urban space expansion is the result of the interaction between internal and external forces of the urban. Based on the remote sensing image data of 1990, 2000, 2010, and 2020, and the social and economic development data, this paper analyzes the driving mechanism of the Luoyang space expansion characteristics and its correlation characteristics. By using urban land use efficiency index, urban expansion elastic index;urban allometric growth index, and grey correlation analysis in 4 times sections and 3 periods. The research results show that the urban space expansion of Luoyang mainly comes from the needs and support of economic development, the coordination between urban space expansion and population development is poor, and urban space expansion effectively attracts the inflow of external funds, and the settlement of migrants, drives the development of the tertiary industry, and increases the local revenue.

Spatiotemporal variations of cultivated land use efficiency in the Yangtze River Economic Belt based on carbon emission constraints

In this study,the carbon emissions(CEs)from cultivated land(CL)were included as an undesirable output in the utilization efficiency of such land.A slack-based model was used to calculate the CL use efficiency(CLUE)for 11 provinces and cities in the Yangtze River Economic Belt(YREB)from 2007 to 2016,and then a kernel density estimation map was drawn to analyze the spatiotemporal variations of CLUE.The Tobit model was also employed to analyze the factors affecting the CLUE.The results show the following.1)In the YREB,the CEs from CL showed a rising and then a slowly decreasing trend.In this paper,we calculate CEs by carbon emission factors and major carbon sources,and the CEs from CL in the YREB totaled 25.2354 million tons in 2007.By 2014,the value had increased gradually to 28.4400 million tons,and by 2016 it had declined to 27.8922 million tons,suggesting that the carbon-emission reduction measures of the government had an impact.2)The CLUE of various provinces and cities in the YREB showed an upward trend in the time dimension,while for the spatial dimension,the kernel density was high in the east and low in the west,and the areas with high kernel density were mainly located in the Yangtze River Delta.3)The per capita gross domestic product,the primary industrial output,and the number of agricultural technicians per 10,000 people had positive effects on the CLUE.The CL area per capita and the electrical power per hectare for agricultural machinery had significant negative impacts on CLUE.In addition,every 1%increase in the number of agricultural technicians increased the CLUE by 0.057%.

Spatial-temporal change in urban agricultural land use efficiency from the perspective of agricultural multi-functionality： A case study of the Xi＇an metropolitan zone

The excessive expansion of urbanized areas has resulted in haphazard land utili- zation, immoderate consumption of superior agricultural land and water resources, significant fragmentation of agricultural landscape, and gradual deterioration of the agro-ecological en- vironment. Combined, these factors cause poor land use efficiency. Under these circum- stances, comprehensively assessing land use efficiency for urban agriculture is a key issue in land use research. Currently, evaluation methods for agricultural land use efficiency narrowly concentrate on aspects of economic input and output. However, urban agro-ecosystems can provide diverse economic, social, and ecological services and functions. In particular, the social and ecological services and functions originating from agricultural land, which have a higher value than economic services, play a significant role in ensuring regional social, eco- logical, and environmental security. However, recent research has rarely taken these benefits into consideration. Therefore, land use value has been greatly underestimated, which has resulted in mishandled and poor land use policies. In this study, we apply Landsat imagery and social and economic statistical data for the Xi＇an metropolitan zone （XMZ） to investigate agricultural multi-functionality. We develop an evaluation framework for urban agricultural land use efficiency and identify agro-ecosystem services and functions as important outputs from agricultural land. The land use efficiency of urban agriculture is then evaluated using ecosystem services models, providing a mechanism for assessing spatial-temporal changes in land use efficiency in the XMZ from 1999 to 2015. Four important conclusions are reached from this analysis. First, the rapid urbanization and agricultural transformation from traditional cereal cultivation to modern urban agriculture has resulted in steadily increasing costs, out- puts, and land use efficiency of urban agriculture. The total output value increased 41% and land use efficiency per hectare increased by 33.13% on average. Second, the spatial patterns of comprehensive output and land use efficiency were dominated by economic outputs from agricultural land. Areas near cities, which are dominated by orchard and arable land, provide more economic functions. These areas support and regulate services due to the transforma- tion from extensive cereal production to intensive modern urban agriculture; therefore, they have higher output value and land use efficiency. In contrast, areas distant from cities, towns, and high traffic roads, namely, remote rural areas, provide more support and regulating ser- vices, but have relatively lower economic function due to inaccessibility tO urban markets and slow agricultural transformation. Therefore, these areas have lower output value and land use efficiency. The spatial change in agricultural output and land use efficiency in urban areas is strongly dependent on the degree of urbanization and agricultural transformation. Third, the total output value and land use efficiency of urban agriculture measured with our approach are much higher than evaluations using traditional methods. However, the spatial patterns measured using the two approaches are in agreement. The evaluation framework integrates ecological services and economic and social functions into a comprehensive output from agricultural land. This approach is more methodical and accurate for evaluating the compre- hensive efficiency of land use based on quantities and spatial scale because they are at the pixel scale. Finally, the evaluation results have important implications for enhancing current agricultural subsidies and even implementing ecological payment policies in China. Most importantly, they can be directly applied to agricultural transformation regulations, decision-making, and guidance for rational land utilization.

经济增长目标管理对城市土地绿色利用效率的影响——基于282个地级及以上城市的经验证据

研究目的:利用2006—2021年全国282个地级及以上城市的面板数据,系统考察经济增长目标管理对城市土地绿色利用效率的影响。研究方法:超效率SBM模型,固定效应模型。研究结果:(1)经济增长目标对城市土地绿色利用效率呈现明显的负向影响效应,且这一结论通过了克服内生性等一系列稳健性检验。(2)正式与非正式环境规制均能够减缓经济增长目标对城市土地绿色利用效率的负向影响,且后者的调节效应更强。(3)经济增长目标存在明显的自上而下逐级加码现象,且目标加码行为会对城市土地绿色利用效率产生抑制作用。(4)当目标约束程度为一般约束和硬约束,以及目标完成情况从未完成、正常完成到超额完成时,经济增长目标对城市土地绿色利用效率的负向影响显著且逐渐增强。研究结论:进一步淡化GDP增速在官员绩效考核中的重要性,尽量采用“留有余地”的软约束方式设定经济增长目标,重视环境规制的约束作用。

The Ecological Effects of Young Elm Trees Belt-Pumpkin Strip Intercropping System at the Agro-Pastoral Ecotone in Northern China

Young elm trees belt-pumpkin strip intercropping was studied to solve the actual problem of resource losses in the large barren area resulted from reconverting cultivated land into forest in the agro-pastoral ecotone in northern China. The final objective was to realize effective utilization of the barren land with both ecological improvement and economic development. Field experiments were conducted together with laboratory analysis. The results indicated that the soil moisture level was remarkably increased in young elm trees belt-pumpkin strip intereropping because the pumpkin vines covered the gap between pumpkin planting-furrow and elm trees belt. The water use efficiency of the intercropping system was increased by 23.7-163.3% as compared with the single cropping. Elm trees belt-pumpkin strip intercropping changed the sequential succession trend of the grasses growing in the gap of the pumpkin planting-furrow. The annual grasses become the dominant vegetation. The nutritive value as fodder and yield of the annual grasses were also increased remarkably. The biomass of pumpkin, elm trees and grasses under intercropping increased by 24.4, 28.4 and 144.4%, respectively, as compared with those under single cropping. The land use efficiency was increased by 132%. It was also indicated that the soil erosion from the intercropping land was not increased due to pumpkin plantation. The differences in the soil erosion among intercropped area, elm trees belt and pumpkin strip with single cropping were not remarkable. Therefore, it was concluded that young elm trees belt-pumpkin strip intercropping is an effective way to utilize the barren land between the young elm trees belt and realize synergistic enhancement of ecological benefit and economic profit.

The impacts of land-use and land-cover change on wetland ecosystem service values in peri-urban and urban area of Bahir Dar City, Upper Blue Nile Basin, Northwestern Ethiopia

Background:Even though wetlands are essential in enhancing water quality and providing recreation and entertainment opportunities in urban areas,their values are overlooked by the decision-makers.Underestimation of the economic value of wetland ecosystem services contributes to their continuing deterioration and inevitable loss.Investigating the changes in ecosystem service values(ESV)can provide crucial information for decision-making.This study,therefore,analyzes the temporal and spatial land-use/land-cover(LULC)change patterns over 35 years(1984–2019)intending to evaluate its impact on wetland ecosystem service values in Bahir Dar City,Ethiopia.Estimation and change analyses of ESVs were conducted by employing ArcGIS using LULC inputs of the year 1984,1994,2004,2014,and 2019 with their corresponding global value coefficients that were developed earlier and our own modified value coefficients for the studied landscape.Results:The results showed that wetlands and water bodies of the city and its peripheries had decreased by 75.71%(−1618 ha)within 35 years,while built-up area increased by 216.24%(+2599 ha).Cultivated land had increased slightly from 1984 to 1994 and then gradually declined since 1994.Changes in LULC had resulted in a decline of the total ESV.The total ESV had decreased from USD 29.73×10^(6) to USD 20.84×10^(6) in 35 years.This indicates the loss of nearly USD 8.9×10^(6) ESV from 1984 to 2019.A sensitivity analysis suggested the robustness of ESV estimation in the study area.All individual ecosystem services experienced a negative change.However,a greater reduction in ESV was observed for services such as water regulation,waste treatment,and habitats for maintaining biodiversity.The expansion of built-up area of Bahir Dar City was the major factor that contributed to the loss of ESV provided by wetlands.Conclusions:The loss of ESV resulting in LULC changes has a negative implication on local climate,waste management,and the livelihoods of the poor community.Thus,interventions should be made for the restoration and sustainable management of wetlands in the urban and peri-urban areas of Bahir Dar City.

Material dependence of cities and implications for regional sustainability

Cities rely on massive amounts of physical,chemical,and biological resources to support their growth and metabolism.These‘metabolic inputs’are accumulated in cities to form material stocks in buildings,infrastructures,transportation facilities,and household appliances.This study takes China’s urbanization as an example to illustrate the characteristics of material stock changes in developing countries and compare them with those in developed countries.Results show that(1)material stocks have been growing in China,but have saturated in developed countries,and(2)the major components of urban metabolism are construction and industrial materials(e.g.,steel)in developing countries but biomass(e.g.,food)in developed countries.The changes in the magnitude and types of material stocks can not only measure urban development but also directly link city and its residents,offering advantages in representing urbanization over the existing indices such as population,land use,or gross domestic product(GDP).Given the new insights provided by material stock,we recommend to embrace it as a critical index of urbanization for guiding urban planning and policy-making.

Exploring complex urban growth and land use efficiency in China's developed regions:implications for territorial spatial planning

Developed regions in China have experienced rapid urban expansion and have consequently induced a series of challenging environmental issues since its economic reform and opening-up.Taking Zhejiang as a case study area,the present paper explores the complex types of urban growth over the last four decades as well as land use efficiency.Moreover,it discusses the implications of the aforementioned on China national territorial spatial planning(TSP).The acquired results have shown that:1)urban expansion has slowed down,exhibiting a three-stage trend of"slight increase(1980-1990)—dramatic growth(1990-2010)—slow growth(after 2010)";2)the complex types of urban growth reveal that the urban diffusion has been gradually controlled and the urban form tends to be more condensed;and 3)the mean values for pure technical efficiency(PTE)and scale efficiency(SE)of urban land use are 0.83 and 0.95 respectively,indicating PTE as the main factor restricting the improvement of urban land use.Based on these results,some beneficial policy implications and suggestions for TSP are provided.First,it is suggested that"Inventory Planning"will be the main direction of TSP other than"Incremental Planning".Secondly,we should pay more attention to the protection of cultivated land and ecological resources.Lastly,TSP should guide the economic growth away from simply relying on resource inputs and steer it toward technology and capital investment.

城市行政等级对土地利用效率的影响——基于资源集聚能力中介的视角

行政等级作为城市政治资本的直观展现,很大程度上决定了城市的资源集聚能力,进而对土地利用效率产生重要影响。该研究利用2005—2021年中国266个城市的数据,采用非期望产出SBM模型对中国城市土地利用效率进行测度,并运用中介效应模型、有调节的中介效应模型和控制函数法从理论与实证两方面分析了城市行政等级对土地利用效率的影响及其作用渠道。研究结果发现:(1)高等级城市比普通地级市拥有更高的资源集聚能力和土地利用效率,且城市的等级越高影响效果越大,在更改被解释变量、解释变量和内生性检验后结论依然成立。(2)中介效应的结果表明,资源集聚能力在行政等级和土地利用效率的影响关系中发挥正向中介的作用,行政等级通过集聚各类城市发展所需的资源影响土地利用效率。(3)多重中介效应的结果表明经济和公共资源集聚能力在行政等级和土地利用效率的影响关系中发挥正向中介的作用,经济和公共资源集聚能力越高,城市土地利用效率也越高;政治资源集聚能力在行政等级和土地利用效率的影响关系中发挥负向中介的作用,政治资源集聚能力的提高降低了城市土地利用效率。(4)有调节的中介效应检验发现,在资源集聚能力固定时,提高政府财政透明度将有利于提升城市土地利用效率。基于以上结论,为提高城市土地利用效率提供一些建议:上级政府适当下放一定程度的经济发展权限,提升部分强市的话语权;打破市场分割,推进生产要素在城市之间自由流动;提升政府治理能力,推动政府信息公开,规范政府办事流程,杜绝土地市场交易中的腐败行为。

经济聚集与产业结构对城市土地利用效率的影响

从经济集聚、产业结构两方面构建城市土地利用效率影响因素分析框架,并通过计量经济模型定量考察经济集聚、产业结构对城市土地利用效率的影响。结果表明：①现阶段中国城市土地利用效率处于随集聚程度的提高而增加的阶段,拥挤效应还不明显。同时,集聚程度的不同方面对土地利用效率的贡献大小存在差异,资本密度对城市土地利用效率的影响大于就业密度和人口规模,这表明现阶段中国城市经济增长主要由资本投入推动的。②城市产业结构优化能够提高土地利用效率。资本有机构成的提高,意味着资本对劳动的替代作用增强,其进一步加大了资本对城市土地产出的推动作用,有利于土地利用效率的提升,但不利于城市就业水平的提升。

城市土地利用效益综合评价指标体系与评价方法——以武汉市为例

城市是一个国家发展水平的重要标志,而城市土地利用效益是衡量城市土地利用水平、反映城市发展状况的一项重要指标。该文总结了城市土地利用效益综合评价的意义,探讨了评价指标体系的构建,并建立了相应的评价模型,最后以武汉市为例,对其土地利用效益进行了评价。

基于三阶段DEA模型的城市土地利用经济效率分析——以江浙沪地区为例

城市土地资源短缺、利用率偏低已经成为制约地区经济发展的关键性因素。选取江浙沪地区作为研究对象,运用三阶段DEA模型对该地区25个城市在2009-2012年间的土地利用经济效率进行实证分析。首先,运用传统DEA方法将技术效率分解为纯技术效率和规模效率。其次,运用SFA模型剔除外部环境因素和随机误差的影响,得到新的投入变量。最后,将新的投入变量和原始产出变量重新代入传统DEA模型,得到更加准确的效率值。结果表明,纯技术效率被低估,技术效率和规模效率被较大程度高估;大部分城市的决策与管理水平都较为成熟,但仍处于规模报酬递增阶段;上海和苏州的土地利用水平最高,江苏省的苏南地区高于苏北地区,浙江省的浙东地区高于浙西地区,城市土地利用经济效率与地区经济发展水平和产业结构高度相关。

城市土地资源配置效率的经济学分析——以住宅用地和非住宅用地为例

以住宅用地和非住宅用地为例,利用需求-供给-价格这一基本的经济学原理对城市土地资源配置中的规划配置方式和市场配置方式的效率进行了对比研究,得出结论认为在市场失灵的情况下,通过规划调控来进行城市土地资源配置比纯粹的市场配置更具效率,进而从经济学的角度论证了在城市土地资源配置中实施规划调控的必要性。

四川省城市土地利用经济效率分析

本文运用数据包络分析方法（DEA）,从投入和产出两方面对四川省18个地级市的城市土地利用经济效率进行了分析。结果表明：2000—2008年,四川省城市土地利用综合技术效率值始终介于0.8~0.9,呈＂W＂型波动,处于高效利用状态;城市土地利用经济效率的高低除了与各生产要素的投入水平有关外,还与各要素的合理组合应用有关,与城市规模等级无直接关系;处于土地利用无效的城市,都存在不同程度的产出不足,部分城市在投入方面也保持冗余,各城市规模报酬状态也不尽相同。