Diffusion Equations of the Electric Charges and Magnetic Flux

Innovative definitions of the electric and magnetic diffusivities through conducting mediums and innovative diffusion equations of the electric charges and magnetic flux are verified in this article. Such innovations depend on the analogy of the governing laws of diffusion of the thermal, electrical, and magnetic energies and newly defined natures of the electric charges and magnetic flux as energy, or as electromagnetic waves, that have electric and magnetic potentials. The introduced diffusion equations of the electric charges and magnetic flux involve Laplacian operator and the introduced diffusivities. Both equations are applied to determine the electric and magnetic fields in conductors as the heat diffusion equation which is applied to determine the thermal field in steady and unsteady heat diffusion conditions. The use of electric networks for experimental modeling of thermal networks represents sufficient proof of similarity of the diffusion equations of both fields. By analysis of the diffusion phenomena of the three considered modes of energy transfer;the rates of flow of these energies are found to be directly proportional to the gradient of their volumetric concentration, or density, and the proportionality constants in such relations are the diffusivity of each energy. Such analysis leads also to find proportionality relations between the potentials of such energies and their volumetric concentrations. Validity of the introduced diffusion equations is verified by correspondence their solutions to the measurement results of the electric and magnetic fields in microwave ovens.

Optimizing Average Electric Power During the Charging of Lithium-Ion Batteries Through the Taguchi Method

In recent times, lithium-ion batteries have been widely used owing to their high energy density, extended cycle lifespan, and minimal self-discharge rate. The design of high-speed rechargeable lithium-ion batteries faces a significant challenge owing to the need to increase average electric power during charging. This challenge results from the direct influence of the power level on the rate of chemical reactions occurring in the battery electrodes. In this study, the Taguchi optimization method was used to enhance the average electric power during the charging process of lithium-ion batteries. The Taguchi technique is a statistical strategy that facilitates the systematic and efficient evaluation of numerous experimental variables. The proposed method involved varying seven input factors, including positive electrode thickness, positive electrode material, positive electrode active material volume fraction, negative electrode active material volume fraction, separator thickness, positive current collector thickness, and negative current collector thickness. Three levels were assigned to each control factor to identify the optimal conditions and maximize the average electric power during charging. Moreover, a variance assessment analysis was conducted to validate the results obtained from the Taguchi analysis. The results revealed that the Taguchi method was an eff ective approach for optimizing the average electric power during the charging of lithium-ion batteries. This indicates that the positive electrode material, followed by the separator thickness and the negative electrode active material volume fraction, was key factors significantly infl uencing the average electric power during the charging of lithium-ion batteries response. The identification of optimal conditions resulted in the improved performance of lithium-ion batteries, extending their potential in various applications. Particularly, lithium-ion batteries with average electric power of 16 W and 17 W during charging were designed and simulated in the range of 0-12000 s using COMSOL Multiphysics software. This study efficiently employs the Taguchi optimization technique to develop lithium-ion batteries capable of storing a predetermined average electric power during the charging phase. Therefore, this method enables the battery to achieve complete charging within a specific timeframe tailored to a specificapplication. The implementation of this method can save costs, time, and materials compared with other alternative methods, such as the trial-and-error approach.

Estimation Method of State-of-Charge For Lithium-ion Battery Used in Hybrid Electric Vehicles Based on Variable Structure Extended Kalman Filter

Since the main power source of hybrid electric vehicle（HEV） is supplied by the power battery,the predicted performance of power battery,especially the state-of-charge（SOC） estimation has attracted great attention in the area of HEV.However,the value of SOC estimation could not be greatly precise so that the running performance of HEV is greatly affected.A variable structure extended kalman filter（VSEKF）-based estimation method,which could be used to analyze the SOC of lithium-ion battery in the fixed driving condition,is presented.First,the general lower-order battery equivalent circuit model（GLM）,which includes column accumulation model,open circuit voltage model and the SOC output model,is established,and the off-line and online model parameters are calculated with hybrid pulse power characteristics（HPPC） test data.Next,a VSEKF estimation method of SOC,which integrates the ampere-hour（Ah） integration method and the extended Kalman filter（EKF） method,is executed with different adaptive weighting coefficients,which are determined according to the different values of open-circuit voltage obtained in the corresponding charging or discharging processes.According to the experimental analysis,the faster convergence speed and more accurate simulating results could be obtained using the VSEKF method in the running performance of HEV.The error rate of SOC estimation with the VSEKF method is focused in the range of 5% to 10% comparing with the range of 20% to 30% using the EKF method and the Ah integration method.In Summary,the accuracy of the SOC estimation in the lithium-ion battery cell and the pack of lithium-ion battery system,which is obtained utilizing the VSEKF method has been significantly improved comparing with the Ah integration method and the EKF method.The VSEKF method utilizing in the SOC estimation in the lithium-ion pack of HEV can be widely used in practical driving conditions.

A New Theory for the Essence and Nature of Electron Charge

Charge is a fundamental physical property of matter that is responsible for its interactions with electromagnetic fields. The real nature and the essence of charge are unknown. In this paper, a new theory is presented to describe the nature and the essence of electric charge is formulated based on the vortex model of the electron which has a finite size and has an irrotational vortex structure. This theory and the vortex model of the electron enables us, for the first time, to describe the origin of bivalency, stability, quantization, equality of the absolute values of the bivalent charges, to derive a simple formulation to calculate the electric charge based on hydrodynamics without the use any constant. The difference between negative and positive charge, is revealed and the charged particles interactions are described. The electric charge is an expression of accelerated spherical mass per area reduced by the stiffness of the vacuum which has the units ε0 ML3/T2. The calculated results based on these equations comply accurately with the experimental results.

The Integer-Fraction Principle of the Digital Electric Charge for Quarks and Quasiparticles

In the integer-fraction principle of the digital electric charge, individual integral charge and individual fractional charge are the digital representations of the allowance and the disallowance of irreversible kinetic energy, respectively. The disallowance of irreversible kinetic energy for individual fractional charge brings about the confinement of individual fractional charges to restrict irreversible movement resulted from irreversible kinetic energy. Collective fractional charges are confined by the short-distance confinement force field where the sum of the collective fractional charges is integer. As a result, fractional charges are confined and collective. The confinement force field includes gluons in QCD (quantum chromodynamics) for collective fractional charge quarks in hadrons and the magnetic flux quanta for collective fractional charge quasiparticles in the fractional quantum Hall effect (FQHE). The collectivity of fractional charges requires the attachment of energy as flux quanta to bind collective fractional charges. The integer-fraction transformation from integral charges to fractional charges consists of the three steps: 1) the attachment of an even number of flux quanta to individual integral charge fermions to form individual integral charge composite fermions, 2) the attachment of an odd number of flux quanta to individual integral charge composite fermions to form transitional collective integral charge composite bosons, and 3) the conversion of flux quanta into the confinement force field to confine collective fractional charge composite fermions converted from composite bosons. The charges of quarks are fractional, because QCD (the strong force) emerges in the universe that has no irreversible kinetic energy. Kinetic energy emerged in the universe after the emergence of the strong force. The charges of the quasiparticles in the FQHE are fractional because of the confinement by a two-dimensional system, the Landau levels, and an extremely low temperature and the collectivity by high energy magnetic flux quanta. From the integer-fraction transformation from integral charge electrons to fractional charge quarks, the calculated masses of pion, muon and constituent quarks are in excellent agreement with the observed values.

Charge disturbance/excitation in the Raman virtual state revealed by ROA signal: A case study of pinane

The Raman mode intensities are used to extract the bond polarizabilities which are the indication of the charge disturbance/excitation of the Raman virtual state. A classical formula based on the electric and magnetic dipolar coupling among the charges on the atoms is developed which relates the charges and vibrational amplitudes of the atoms in a normal mode to the Raman optical activity(ROA) mode signatures. By fitting with the experimental ROA signatures, we are able to elucidate the scaling parameter which relates the bond polarizability to the electric charge. The result shows that around40% of the charges in pinane are involved in the Raman process under 532 nm laser excitation.

Numerical study on polymer nanofibers with electrically charged jet of viscoelastic fluid in electrospinning process

Electrospinning is a useful and efficient technique to produce polymeric nanofibers. Nanofibers of polymers are electrospun by creating an electrically charged jet of polymer solution. Numerical study on non-Newtonian and viscoelastic jets of polymer nanofibers in electrospinning process is presented in this work. In particular, the effect of non-Newtonian rheology on the jet profile during the electrospinning process is examined. The governing equations of the problem are solved numerically using the Keller-Box method. The effects of yield stress and power-law index on the elongation, velocity, stress and total force are presented and discussed in detail. The results show that by increasing the values of yield stress, the fluid elongation is reduced significantly.

Capacitive Control of Spontaneously Induced Electrical Charge of Droplet by Electric Field-Assisted Pipetting

The spontaneously generated electrical charge of a droplet dispensed from conventional pipetting is undesirable and unpredictable for most experiments that use pipetting.Hence,a method for controlling and removing the electrical charge needs to be developed.In this study,by using the electrode-deposited pipet tip(E-pipet tip),the charge-controlling system is newly developed and the electrical charge of a droplet is precisely controlled.The effect of electrolyte concentration and volume of the transferred solution to the electrical charge of a dispensed droplet is theoretically and experimentally investigated by using the equivalent capacitor model.Furthermore,a proof-of-concept example of the self-alignment and self-assembly of sequentially dispensed multiple droplets is demonstrated as one of the potential applications.Given that the electrical charge of the various aqueous droplets can be precisely and simply controlled,the fabricated E-pipet tip can be broadly utilized not only as a general charge-controlling platform of aqueous droplets but also as a powerful tool to explore fundamental scientific research regarding electrical charge of a droplet,such as the surface oscillation and evaporation of charged droplets.

Thermal properties of regular black hole with electric charge in Einstein gravity coupled to nonlinear electrodynamics

We propose a regular spherically symmetric spacetime solution with three parameters in Einstein gravity coupled to nonlinear electrodynamics(NED), which describes the NED black hole with electric charge. It is found that the system enclosed by the horizon of NED spacetime satisfies the first law of thermodynamics. In order to obtain the NED spacetime with only electric charge, the case of two parameters taking the same value is considered. In this case, we express the mass of the NED spacetime as a function of the entropy and electric charge of the NED black hole, give the Smarr-like formula and the approximate Smarr formula for the mass of NED spacetime.

Momentum equation for straight electrically charged jet

A one-dimensional momentum conservation equation for a straight jet driven by an electrical field is developed. It is presented in terms of a stress component, which can be applied to any constitutive relation of fluids. The only assumption is that the fluid is incompressible. The results indicate that both the axial and radial constitutive relations are required to close the governing equations of the straight charged jet. However, when the trace of the extra stress tensor is zero, only the axial constitutive relation is required. It is also found that the second normal stress difference for the charged jet is always zero. The comparison with other developed momentum equations is made.

The Quantum Handshake: An Electric Charge/Transactional Interpretation of the Single Electron Double-Slit Experiment

A new and falsifiable realist interpretation of quantum mechanics is examined in relation to the sum over histories concept, pilot wave theory and the many-worlds interpretation. This electric charge/transactional model explains how the single electron double-slit experiment produces extremely localized endpoints from diffracted wavicles, why these endpoints are scattered around the entire surface of the absorber screen, and why these points of contact result in the characteristic fringe pattern as they accumulate. Advanced waves and substantive electric charge effects in the double-slit experiment are postulated, then this hypothesis is supported by a quantitative analysis of electron emission in comparison to lightning. The wider implications if advanced waves and electric charge distribution prove to be significant factors in the double-slit experiment are discussed, including possible parallels with meteorological and neurological phenomena.

Nature’s Particulate Matter with and without Charge and Travelling

Natures and anthropogenic particulates can travel long distances on wind flows, but negative electrical charge due to friction can increase dispersion. Models for calculations of distance travelling of biological particulate matter with and without charge are never been calculated in a theoretical approach. Nor do we realize the fact that we can calculate actual distances if we take the charge on particles in account. Particles that travel through the air encounter friction. Friction can be described in two ways;either in a smooth constant way through the air with its viscous forces, or in a turbulent chaotic eddies and vortices and other flow instabilities. In case of only viscous forces are to be concerned, it can be described as a lower Reynolds number than one, while in all other setting it always must be described by Reynolds numbers larger than or equal to one. This article describes the calculated effects on particles, either in a low Reynolds number and thus as a Navier-Stokes equation or Stokes’ Law or, in case of non-laminar and complex forces in an equal or higher Reynolds number according to the third Law of Newton. In addition some striking examples of particle travelling are given with evidence of natural particulate matter long distance dispersion.

New Properties of HM16 Ether, with Submicroparticles as Self-Functional Cells Interacting through Percussion Forces, Establishing Nature of Electrical Charges, including Gravitation

Article continues and complements our previous articles on the HM16 ether (ETH) model. Here, we describe the mechanism of occurrence of the submicroparticle (SMP). A general hypothesis, HFVI, is introduced for the modalities of interaction between two SMPs, based on periodic mechanical percussion forces, produced by fundamental vibrations FVs. A mechanism for describing the interaction between a SMPs and the ETH is presented. Positive and negative particles are defined by their membrane types of movement, such as +, −u/+, −v vibrations, and rotations at speeds +Ω/−Ω. The process of creating a pair of SMPs is discussed. Applying HFVI to the interaction between pairs of SMPs immobile in ETH, and considering longitudinal FVL, was obtained the forces of attraction/repulsion +FL21/–FL21, which correspond to the completed Coulomb force FCC including gravitation. The resultant FRL21 will form an oriented field of forces, which is a quasielectric field QE, equivalent to actual E electric field. Considering transversal FVT, was obtained the vibratory forces +, −FT21, whose resultant forms an vibrating field of forces, QHs, a quasimagnetic special field, which may explain some of the quantum properties of SMPs. Considering a mobile SMP, two new γ strains in ETH appear. Strains γL are created by the displacement of SMP with velocity V, whose force +, −FT12 is the support of a component of the magnetic field H (quasimagnetic field QH), giving the QHL component. Strains γR are created by the rotation of SMP with speed Ω, whose force +, −FR12 constitutes physical support of the component QHR of magnetic field H (i.e. QH). The creation of a photon PH is modelled as a special ESMP containing two zones of opposed rotations, and a mechanism is presented for its movement in the ETH with speed c based on the HS hypothesis of screwing in ETH, with frequency ν.

Electric Charge, Matter Distribution, and Baryon Asymmetry from Holographic Principle

Explaining baryon asymmetry (i.e., matter dominance) in the universe has been a vexing problem in physics. This analysis, based on the holographic principle, identifies fractional electric charge with the state of bits of information on the event horizon. Thermodynamics on the event horizon at the time of baryogenesis then estimates observed baryon asymmetry.

Biquaternionic Form of Laws of Electro-Gravimagnetic Charges and Currents Interactions

One the base of differential algebra of biquaternions, the one model of electro-gravimagnetic interactions of electric and gravimagnetic charges and currents has been constructed. For this, three Newton laws analogues are used. The closed system of biquaternionic wave equations is constructed for determination of the charges-currents and electro-gravimagnetic fields and united field of interactions. The equation of charge-current transformation is like the generalization of biquaternionic presentation of Dirac equation. The properties of its solutions are described, depending on properties of external EGM field. The biquaternions of energy-pulse of EGM-field and charges-currents are considered. The energy-pulse of EGM-interactions is calculated.

Biquaternionic Model of Electro-Gravimagnetic Field, Charges and Currents. Law of Inertia

One the base of Maxwell and Dirac equations the one biquaternionic model of electro-gravimagnetic (EGM) fields is considered. The closed system of biquaternionic wave equations is constructed for determination of free system of electric and gravimagnetic charges and currents and generated by them EGM-field. By using generalized functions theory the fundamental and regular solutions of this system are determined and some of them are considered (spinors, plane waves, shock EGM-waves and others). The properties of these solutions are investigated.

CALCULATION AND EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF ELECTRIC FIELDS INDUCED BY ELECTRODES IN ELECTROSTATIC CHARGED POWDER SPRAYING TECHNIQUE

Electric fields induced by ring and pin electrodes in electrostatic charged powder sprayingtechnique are analysed. The fundamental formulae to deseribe these fields have been built up. Theseformulae could be used to design electrostatic charged podwer spraying system. The chargingeffectiveness of ring and pin electrode is experimentally investigated and compared each other. Theperformance of ring electrode is better than that of pin electrode.

Location and Capacity Determination Method of Electric Vehicle Charging Station Based on Simulated Annealing Immune Particle Swarm Optimization

As the number of electric vehicles(EVs)continues to grow and the demand for charging infrastructure is also increasing,how to improve the charging infrastructure has become a bottleneck restricting the development of EVs.In other words,reasonably planning the location and capacity of charging stations is important for development of the EV industry and the safe and stable operation of the power system.Considering the construction and maintenance of the charging station,the distribution network loss of the charging station,and the economic loss on the user side of the EV,this paper takes the node and capacity of charging station planning as control variables and the minimum cost of system comprehensive planning as objective function,and thus proposes a location and capacity planning model for the EV charging station.Based on the problems of low efficiency and insufficient global optimization ability of the current algorithm,the simulated annealing immune particle swarm optimization algorithm(SA-IPSO)is adopted in this paper.The simulated annealing algorithm is used in the global update of the particle swarm optimization(PSO),and the immune mechanism is introduced to participate in the iterative update of the particles,so as to improve the speed and efficiency of PSO.Voronoi diagram is used to divide service area of the charging station,and a joint solution process of Voronoi diagram and SA-IPSO is proposed.By example analysis,the results show that the optimal solution corresponding to the optimisation method proposed in this paper has a low overall cost,while the average charging waiting time is only 1.8 min and the charging pile utilisation rate is 75.5%.The simulation comparison verifies that the improved algorithm improves the operational efficiency by 18.1%and basically does not fall into local convergence.

Proper Understanding of the Natures of Electrons, Protons, and Modifying Redundancies in Electro-Magnetism

When considering electromagnetism, the unit of the Ammeter’s measurement should be limited to its proper unit in “Watt/Volt” which is, according to physical principles, the division quotient of the measured electrical power by its electrical potential. However, the Ammeter’s reading has also a traditional definition as the rate of flow of electric charges whose unit is “Ampere”. According to recent studies that define the electric charge as energy possessing an electric potential, such traditional definition is wrong as the Ammeter’s reading should, then, has the unit “Watt”. Such duality of the Ammeter’s reading is due to the wrong definition of electric charges as electrons and insertion of the “Ampere”, as a wrong unit of the flow of electric charges. This duality represents a “redundancy” in electromagnetism as the proper Ammeter’s reading, in Watt/Volt, is a unit of entropy of the flowing energy charges. Such redundancy led to further redundancies in the field of electromagnetism. In this article, it is followed the impacts of inserting the “Ampere” as illogic unit and it is derived the proper modifications of the results of replacing the “Ampere” by its logical substitute “Watt/Volt”. Such modifications lead to a robust definition of the electron as an elementary particle which has an elementary charge of energy 1.602 × 10-19 Joules and has a negative electric potential of 1 Volt and to a proper definition of the protons as elementary particles which are charged by a similar charge of electron, but it has a positive potential of 1 Volt. Additionally, the electron-volt is properly defined as an elementary charge whose energy is 1.602 × 10-19 Joules and whose potential is ±1 Volt. Such modifications also lead to improve the understanding of magnetic induction and modifying the equations that characterize the performance of electric machines. The truth of such innovative understandings is verified analytically and experimentally in this article.

Proper Understanding of the Nerve Impulses and the Action Potential

Neurologists define the transmission of nerve impulses across the membranes of the neural cells as a result of difference in the concentration of ions while they measured an electric potential, called as an action potential, which allows the propagation of such nerve impulses as electrical signals. Such measurements should guide them to a logical explanation of the nerve impulses as electric charges driven by the measured action potential. However, such logical conclusion, or explanation, is ignored due to a wrong definition of the flow of electric charges as a flow of electrons that cannot pass through neural networks. According to recent studies, electric charges are properly defined as electromagnetic (EM) waves whose energy is expressed as the product of its propagating electric potential times their entropy flow which is adhered to the flow of such energy. Such definition matches the logical conclusion of the nerve impulses as electric charges, as previously explained, and defines the entropy of the neural network, measured by Ammeters, in Watt or Joule/Volt. The measured entropy represents a neurodiagnostic property of the neural networks that measures its capacity to allow the flow of energy per unit action potential. Theoretical verification of the innovative definition of nerve impulses is presented by following an advanced entropy approach. A proper review of the machine records of the stimulating electric charges, used in the diagnosis of the neural networks, and the stimulated nerve impulses or stimulated responses, represents practical verifications of the innovative definitions of the electric charges and the nerve impulses. Comparing the functioning of the thermoelectric generators and the brain neurons, such neurons are defined as thermoelectric generators of the electric nerve impulses and their propagating, or action, potential.