Comparison of electrochemical behaviors of Ti-5Al-2Sn-4Zr-4Mo-2Cr-1Fe and Ti-6Al-4V titanium alloys in NaNO_(3) solution

The Ti-5Al-2Sn-4Zr-4Mo-2Cr-1Fe(β-CEZ)alloy is considered as a potential structural material in the aviation industry due to its outstanding strength and corrosion resistance.Electrochemical machining(ECM)is an efficient and low-cost technology for manufacturing theβ-CEZ alloy.In ECM,the machining parameter selection and tool design are based on the electrochemical dissolution behavior of the materials.In this study,the electrochemical dissolution behaviors of theβ-CEZ and Ti-6Al-4V(TC4)alloys in NaNO3solution are discussed.The open circuit potential(OCP),Tafel polarization,potentiodynamic polarization,electrochemical impedance spectroscopy(EIS),and current efficiency curves of theβ-CEZ and TC4 alloys are analyzed.The results show that,compared to the TC4 alloy,the passivation film structure is denser and the charge transfer resistance in the dissolution process is greater for theβ-CEZ alloy.Moreover,the dissolved surface morphology of the two titanium-based alloys under different current densities are analyzed.Under low current densities,theβ-CEZ alloy surface comprises dissolution pits and dissolved products,while the TC4 alloy surface comprises a porous honeycomb structure.Under high current densities,the surface waviness of both the alloys improves and the TC4 alloy surface is flatter and smoother than theβ-CEZ alloy surface.Finally,the electrochemical dissolution models ofβ-CEZ and TC4 alloys are proposed.

Leveraging electrochemical sensors to improve efficiency of cancer detection

Electrochemical biosensors have emerged as a promising technology for cancer detection due to their high sensitivity,rapid response,low cost,and capability for non-invasive detection.Recent advances in nanomaterials like nanoparticles,graphene,and nanowires have enhanced sensor performance to allow for cancer biomarker detection,like circulating tumor cells,nucleic acids,proteins and metabolites,at ultra-low concentrations.However,several challenges need to be addressed before electrochemical biosensors can be clinically implemented.These include improving sensor selectivity in complex biological media,device miniaturization for implantable applications,integration with data analytics,handling biomarker variability,and navigating regulatory approval.This editorial critically examines the prospects of electrochemical biosensors for efficient,low-cost and minimally invasive cancer screening.We discuss recent developments in nanotechnology,microfabrication,electronics integration,multiplexing,and machine learning that can help realize the potential of these sensors.However,significant interdisciplinary efforts among researchers,clinicians,regulators and the healthcare industry are still needed to tackle limitations in selectivity,size constraints,data interpretation,biomarker validation,toxicity and commercial translation.With committed resources and pragmatic strategies,electrochemical biosensors could enable routine early cancer detection and dramatically reduce the global cancer burden.

Convergence Analysis of the Numerical Solution for Cathode Design of Aero-engine Blades in Electrochemical Machining

As a main difficult problem encountered in electrochemical machining （ECM）, the cathode design is tackled, at present, with various numerical analysis methods such as finite difference, finite element and boundary element methods. Among them, the finite element method presents more flexibility to deal with the irregularly shaped workpieces. However, it is very difficult to ensure the convergence of finite element numerical approach. This paper proposes an accurate model and a finite element numerical approach of cathode design based on the potential distribution in inter-electrode gap. In order to ensure the convergence of finite element numerical approach and increase the accuracy in cathode design, the cathode shape should be iterated to eliminate the design errors in computational process. Several experiments are conducted to verify the machining accuracy of the designed cathode. The experimental results have proven perfect convergence and good computing accuracy of the proposed finite element numerical approach by the high surface quality and dimensional accuracy of the machined blades.

Improvement of Electrochemical Machining Accuracy by Using Dual Pole Tool

Electrochemical machining (ECM) is one of the best al ternatives for producing complex shapes in advanced materials used in aircraft a nd aerospace industries. However, the reduction of the stray material removal co ntinues to be major challenges for industries in addressing accuracy improvement . This study presents a method of improving machining accuracy in ECM by using a dual pole tool with a metallic bush outside the insulated coating of a cathode tool. The bush is connected with anode and so the electric field at the side gap area is substantially weakened. The modeling and simulation indicate that the p ositive bush brings down the current density at the side gap area of the machine d hole and hence reduces the stray material removal there. It has been experimen tally observed that the machining accuracy and the process stability are signifi cantly improved.

Effects of Shielding Coatings on the Anode Shaping Process during Counter-rotating Electrochemical Machining

Electrochemical machining （ECM） has been widely used in the aerospace, automotive, defense and medical industries for its many advantages over traditional machining methods. However, the machining accuracy in ECM is to a great extent limited by the stray corrosion of the unwanted material removal. Many attempts have been made to improve the ECM accuracy, such as the use of a pulse power, passivating electrolytes and auxiliary electrodes. However, they are sometimes insufficient for the reduction of the stray removal and have their limitations in many cases. To solve the stray corrosion problem in CRECM, insulating and conductive coatings are respectively used. The different implement processes of the two kinds of coatings are introduced. The effects of the two kinds of shielding coatings on the anode shaping process are investigated. Numerical simulations and experiments are conducted for the comparison of the two coatings. The simulation and experimental results show that both the two kinds of coatings are valid for the reduction of stray corrosion on the top surface of the convex structure. However, for insulating coating, the convex sidewall becomes concave when the height of the convex structure is over 1.26 ram. In addition, it is easy to peel off by the high-speed electrolyte. In contrast, the conductive coating has a strong adhesion, and can be well reserved during the whole machining process. The convex structure fabricated by using a conductive iron coating layer presents a favorable sidewall profile. It is concluded that the conductive coating is more effective for the improvement of the machining quality in CRECM. The proposed shielding coatings can also be employed to reduce the stray corrosion in other schemes of ECM.

Dissolution Characteristics of New Titanium Alloys in Electrochemical Machining

We focus on the electrochemical dissolution characteristics of new titanium alloys such as near-αtitanium alloy Ti60,α+βtitanium alloy TC4andβtitanium alloy Ti40 which are often used for aerospace industry.The experiments are carried out by electrochemical machining tool,and the surface morphology of the specimens is observed by the scanning electron microscope(SEM)and three-dimensional video microscope(DVM).The appropriate electrolyte is selected and the relationships between surface roughness and current density are achieved.The results show that the single-phase titanium alloy Ti40 has a better surface roughness after ECM compared with theα+βtitanium alloy TC4 and the near-αtitanium alloy Ti60.The best surface roughness is Ra 0.28μm when the current density is 75A/cm2.Furthermore,the surface roughness of the near-αtitanium alloy Ti60 is the most sensitive with the current density because of the different electrochemical equivalents of substitutional elements and larger grains than TC4.Finally,the suitable current density for each titanium alloy is achieved.

Effects of mask wall angle on matrix-hole shape changes during electrochemical machining by mask

The influences of the mask wall angle on the current density distribution,shape of the evolving cavity and machining accuracy were investigated in electrochemical machining(ECM) by mask.A mathematical model was developed to predict the shape evolution during the ECM by mask.The current density distribution is sensitive to mask wall angle.The evolution of cavity is determined by the current density distribution of evolving workpiece surface.The maximum depth is away from the center of holes machined,which leads to the island appearing at the center of cavity for mask wall angles greater than or equal to 90°(β≥90°).The experimental system was established and the simulation results were experimentally verified.The results indicate that the simulation results of cavity shape are consistent with the actual ones.The experiments also show that the repetition accuracy of matrix-hole for β≥90° is higher than that for β<90°.A hole taper is diminished,and the machining accuracy is improved with the mask wall angle increasing.

Fabrication of Superhydrophobic Micro Post Array on Aluminum Substrates Using Mask Electrochemical Machining

Surfaces with controllable micro structures are significant in fundamental development of superhydrophobicity. However,preparation of superhydrophobic surfaces with array structures on metal substrates is not effective using existing methods. A new method was presented to fabricate super-hydrophobic post arrays on aluminum(Al) substrates using mask electrochemical machining and fluoridation. Electrochemical etching was first applied on Al plates with pre-prepared photoresist arrays to make the post array structures. Surface modification was subsequently applied to reduce the surface energy, followed by interaction with water to realize superhydrophobicity. Simulation and experimental verification were conducted to investigate how machining parameters affect the array structures. Analysis of the water contact angle was implemented to explore the relationship between wettability and micro structures.The results indicate that superhydrophobic surfaces with controllable post structures can be fabricated through this proposed method, producing surfaces with high water static contact angles.

Electrochemical Machining Analysis on Grid Cathode Composed of Square Cells

During the electrochemical machining (ECM), the cathodes designed by the existing methods are mainly unitary cathodes, which can be only used to produce the workpieces with the same shapes. However, there are few researches on designing cathodes for machining the different workpieces with the different surfaces. This paper presents the grid cathode composed of the square cells to produce the workpieces with different shapes. Three types of the square cells, 2.5 mm′2.5 mm, 3 mm′3 mm, and 4 mm′4 mm, are utilized to construct the plane, the slant, and the blade cathode. The material of the cathode and the anode is CrNi 18 Ti 9 , and the ingredient of electrolyte is 15% NaCl and 15% NaNO 3 . The machining equilibrium machining current and time are acquired and analyzed, the machining process and the workpiece quality are compared between using the grid cathode and the unitary cathode. Moreover, the machining errors on the workpiece surface are measured and analyzed, and the error reasons are traced and discussed to obtain the better surface quality of the workpiece. The experiment and analysis results show that the grid cathode can be used to manufacture the workpieces with complex shapes in certain range of the error. The workpiece quality improves with the size of the square cell being reduced, and if the square element is small enough, the workpiece quality is almost equal to the one machined by the unitary cathode. The proposed research realizes a single cathode machining the different workpieces with the different surfaces.

Shape evolution and prediction of three dimensional workpieces in electrochemical machining

Based on the Faraday’s Law, the shape evolution model was calculated depending on a function of time, and the influence of the variable current efficiency which was brought by the passivating electrolyte was included. The final shape determination was obtained by solving the model of electric-field distribution by the finite element method, at the same time flow parameters influencing on the shaping process were also considered. The results show that the experimental results are in close agreement with the theoretical ones.

AUTOREGRESSIVE MODEL AND POWER SPECTRUM CHARATERISTICS OF CURRENT SIGNAL IN HIGH FREQUENCY GROUP PULSE MICRO-ELECTROCHEMICAL MACHINING

The identification of the inter-electrode gap size in the high frequency group pulse micro-electrochemical machining （HGPECM） is mainly discussed. The auto-regressive（AR） model of group pulse current flowing across the cathode and the anode are created under different situations with different processing parameters and inter-electrode gap size. The AR model based on the current signals indicates that the order of the AR model is obviously different relating to the different processing conditions and the inter-electrode gap size; Moreover, it is different about the stability of the dynamic system, i.e. the white noise response of the Green＇s function of the dynamic system is diverse. In addition, power spectrum method is used in the analysis of the dynamic time series about the current signals with different inter-electrode gap size, the results show that there exists a strongest power spectrum peak, characteristic power spectrum（CPS）, to the current signals related to the different inter-electrode gap size in the range of 0～5 kHz. Therefore, the CPS of current signals can implement the identification of the inter-electrode gap.

Theoretical and Experimental Investigation of Laser Milling Assisted with Jet Electrochemical Machining

In laser milling assisted with jet electrochemical machining(LMAJECM),the source of energy is a pulsed laser beam aligned coaxially with a jet of electrolyte,which focuses optical energy on the surface of workpiece.The impact of jet of electrolyte develops a state-of-art work to perform operations such as electrolytic etching,effective cooling,and transportation of debris.Therefore,a special jet cell is designed to obtain stable jet as to be a kind of noncontact tool,i.e.,electrode.According to the theoretical model of on-off pulse time process,laser machining and electrolytic anodization are simulated by finite element analysis(FEA)method.Grooves on a 0.5mm thick 321 stainless steel sheet produced by LMAJECM is performed with pulsed Nd:YAG laser at the second harmonic wavelength.Compared with laser milling under ambient atmosphere conditions,the recast layer and burrs are effectively diminished.And the accuracy of depth is dedicated to laser milling,whilst that of width is dominated by jet electrochemical machining.It is demonstrated that LMAJECM can be a highly potential approach for fabricating 3-D micro components.

Mechanism of ultrasonic-pulse electrochemical compound machining based on particles

The electric double layer with the transmission of particles was presented based on the principle of electrochemistry.In accordance with this theory,the cavitation catalysis removal mechanism of ultrasonic-pulse electrochemical compound machining(UPECM) based on particles was proposed.The removal mechanism was a particular focus and was thus validated by experiments.The principles and experiments of UPECM were introduced,and the removal model of the UPECM based on the principles of UPECM was established.Furthermore,the effects of the material removal rate for the main processing parameters,including the particles size,the ultrasonic vibration amplitude,the pulse voltage and the minimum machining gap between the tool and the workpiece,were also studied through UPECM.The results show that the particles promote ultrasonic-pulse electrochemical compound machining and thus act as the catalyzer of UPECM.The results also indicate that the processing speed,machining accuracy and surface quality can be improved under UPECM compound machining.

Parametric optimization of electrochemical machining of Al/15% SiC_p composites using NSGA-Ⅱ

Electrochemical machining（ECM） is one of the important non-traditional machining processes,which is used for machining of difficult-to-machine materials and intricate profiles.Being a complex process,it is very difficult to determine optimal parameters for improving cutting performance.Metal removal rate and surface roughness are the most important output parameters,which decide the cutting performance.There is no single optimal combination of cutting parameters,as their influences on the metal removal rate and the surface roughness are quite opposite.A multiple regression model was used to represent relationship between input and output variables and a multi-objective optimization method based on a non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm-Ⅱ（NSGA-Ⅱ） was used to optimize ECM process.A non-dominated solution set was obtained.

Plasma-enabled electrochemical jet micromachining of chemically inert and passivating material

Electrochemical jet machining(EJM)encounters significant challenges in the microstructuring of chemically inert and passivating materials because an oxide layer is easily formed on the material surface,preventing the progress of electrochemical dissolution.This research demonstrates for the first time a jet-electrolytic plasma micromachining(Jet-EPM)method to overcome this problem.Specifically,an electrolytic plasma is intentionally induced at the jet-material contact area by applying a potential high enough to surmount the surface boundary layer(such as a passive film or gas bubble)and enable material removal.Compared to traditional EJM,introducing plasma in the electrochemical jet system leads to considerable differences in machining performance due to the inclusion of plasma reactions.In this work,the implementation of Jet-EPM for fabricating microstructures in the semiconductor material 4H-SiC is demonstrated,and the machining principle and characteristics of Jet-EPM,including critical parameters and process windows,are comprehensively investigated.Theoretical modeling and experiments have elucidated the mechanisms of plasma ignition/evolution and the corresponding material removal,showing the strong potential of Jet-EPM for micromachining chemically resistant materials.The present study considerably augments the range of materials available for processing by the electrochemical jet technique.

Magnetic Electrochemical Finishing Machining

How to improve the finishing efficiency and surface roughness have been all along the objective of research in electrochemical polishing. However, the research activity, i.e. during electrochemical polishing, directly introduce the magnetic field to study how the magnetic field influences on the finishing efficiency, quality and the electrochemical process in the field of finishing machining technology, is insufficient. When introducing additional magnetic field in the traditional electrochemical polishing, due to the co-action of Lorentz’ force and electric field force, the ions arriving the machined surface by way of a curvilinear motion result in the electric current density distribution on the surface even more non-uniform, then the dissolving velocity of the peak points or side faces and the diffusion velocity of the product are enhanced, and the forcible agitation is happened on the electrodes surface by magnetic field, the removal rate of peak points are still more greater, and efficiency is also still more higher. Compared with the electrochemical polishing, in the magnetic electrochemical finishing machining, the finishing speed at peak points is higher, but at valley points it is lower, therefore after machining, both the highness at peak points and finishing depth at valley points are smaller, the results are propitious to minish initial wear quantity caused by friction and wear when machined workpiece employing in practice, and increase contact stiffness of workpiece, and from the viewpoint of microcosmic theory, this phenomenon is also of advantage to reduce damage to substrate. It can also be seen from the equation presented in the paper that the track of ionic movement relates to the electrodes gap, potential and magnetic induction intensity and furthermore; under the given conditions, the movement also relate to the electrolyte. it can be inferred that there must be an optimum value in respect of the magnetic induction intensity influencing the efficiency of finishing machining, and at the same time, the rational matching among the interelectrodes voltage, gap sizes and magnetic induction intensity can raise the efficiency and quality as well as improve the surface roughness to the maximum. In short, the co-action of the Lorentz’ force and electric field force change the motion track of anions and make more uneven distribution of the electric current density on the anodes surface, thus the dissolving velocity and product diffusion velocity of the peak points or side faces of the anode are raised. All those and the forced agitation of magnetic field towards the electrode surface are the principal mechanism for surface finishing. This point has been proved from the experimental results in this paper.

Simulation and Experimental Study on Improving Electrochemical Machining Stability of Highly Convex Structures on Casing Surfaces Using Backwater Pressure

Casing parts are regarded as key components of aero-engines.Most casing parts are attached to convex structures of diferent shapes,whose heights range from hundreds of microns to tens of millimeters.Using profling blocky electrodes for electrochemical machining(ECM)of casing parts is a commonly adopted method,especially when highly convex structures.However,with an increase in the convex structure height,the fow felds of the machining areas become more complex,and short circuits may occur at any time.In this study,a method to improve the fow feld characteristics within a machining area by adjusting the backwater pressure is proposed and validated through simulation and experiment analyses.The simulation results demonstrated that the back-pressure method can signifcantly improve the uniformity of the fow feld around the convex structure compared with the extraction and open outlet modes.Subsequently,the back-pressure value was optimized at 0.5 MPa according to the simulation results.The experimental results showed that using the optimized back-pressure parameters,the cathode feed-rate increased from 0.6 to 0.7 mm/min,and a 16.1 mm tall convex structure was successfully machined.This indicates that the back-pressure method is suitable and efective for electrochemical machining of highly convex structures with blocky electrodes.In this study,we propose a method to improve the electrochemical machining stability of a convex structure on a casing surface using backwater pressure,which has achieved remarkable results.

A Study of the Movement Path for NC-Electrochemical Machining of an Integral Impeller

Aiming at machining an integral impeller used by an aero-engine by NC-Electrochemical Machining （ NC-ECM） , we first describe the fitting of a distorted blade surface with a ruled surface. Then a four-axis NC-electrochemical machining process is analyzed and the movement of the impeller is studied by using an equivalent open-loop plane motion link, and every program segment＇s feed displacement of three axes is calculated by analytical solution. Through comparing two results which are obtained , respectively, from analytical solution and experimental result, the comparative effectiveness has proved that the analytical solution is useful in calculating the feed displacement. The study is helpful for the programming of the machining process.

Aviation-oriented Micromachining Technology—Micro-ECM in Pure Water

This article proposes a precise and ecofriendly micromachining technology for aerospace application called electrochemical machining in pure water （PW-ECM）. On the basis of the principles of water dissociation, a series of test setups and tests are devised and performed under different conditions. These tests explain the need for technological conditions realizing PW-ECM, and further explore the technological principles. The results from the tests demonstrate a successful removal of electrolytic slime by means of ultrasonic vibration of the workpiece. To ensure the stability and reliability of PW-ECM process, a new combined machining method of PW-ECM assisted with ultrasonic vibration （PW-ECM/USV） is devised. Trilateral and square cavities and holes as well as a group of English alphabets are worked out on a stainless steel plate. It is confirmed that PW-ECM will be probably an efficient new aviation precision machining method.

Design method and experimental study of a cathode tool with an extremely high leveling ratio for electrochemical machining of blisk

To obtain final parts with the desired dimensional accuracy and repeatability via electrochemical machining(ECM), the machining process must enter an ECM balanced state. However,for the ECM processing of blisk, a key component of aerospace engines, the surface of the blade blank often has an uneven allowance distribution due to the narrow passage of the cascade. It is difficult to remedy this issue in subsequent processing steps, which is necessary to ensure the dimensional accuracy and repeatability of the final blade profile. To solve this problem, electrolytic machining must be preceded by electrolytic shaping, which requires cathode tools with large leveling ratios to quickly homogenize the blank surface of the blade. In this study, to obtain a cathode tool with an extremely high leveling ratio, a design method based on the variation in the electrode gap in the non-equilibrium electrolytic state is proposed, and a dissolution model based on the nonequilibrium state is established. In this design method, the allowance on the blank to be machined is first divided into many discrete allowances with the normal direction. The initial machining clearance, feed rate, and total machining time are then calculated using classical ECM equilibrium state theory based on the maximum allowance. Meanwhile, the point coordinates of the cathode tool at maximum allowance can be determined. The non-equilibrium model can then be used to calculate the relative coordinate positions corresponding to the remaining discrete allowances. Finally, the entire cathode tool profile is designed. Simulations, fundamental experiments, and blisk unit workpiece experiments were carried out to validate the design approach. In the simulated processing of the plane workpiece, the leveling ratio of the cathode tool designed by the proposed method(0.77)was 83% higher than that of the cathode tool designed using the traditional method. The simulation results were confirmed by processing experiments. In the machining of blisk unit workpieces with complex curved surfaces, the leveling ratios of the convex and concave parts of the blade machined using the proposed cathode tool respectively reached 0.75 and 0.54, which are 75% and 38% higher than those obtained using the traditional method. This new cathode design method and machining technology can significantly improve the surface allowance distribution of blank before electrolytic finishing. It is helpful for finishing machine to enter electrolytic equilibrium state. Finally, the final blade profile accuracy can be guaranteed and repeated errors can be reduced.