Effect of porosity on mechanical properties of porous tantalum scaffolds produced by electron beam powder bed fusion

The effect of porosity on compressive,bending,and tensile properties of the porous tantalum scaffolds fabricated by electron beam powder bed fusion(EB-PBF)was investigated.The porous tantalum scaffolds with porosity from 69%to 77.8%were obtained by varying the designed porosity and adjusting the processing parameters.It is found that the pores and unfused powder decrease with the increase of deposited energy density.The decrease of porosity leads to an improvement in mechanical properties.The relevancy between compressive/bending/tensile yield strength and relative density can be described appropriately by exponential model,while the relationship between elastic modulus and relative density is in good agreement with the Gibson-Ashby model.All the porous tantalum scaffolds exhibit good ductility in compressive,bending and tensile tests.No fragmentation of struts is observed during the compression process,but cracks are formed on the strut surface after 90°bending,mainly due to the high sensibility to defects caused by the oxide.

Influence of Component Size on the Corrosion Behavior of Ti6Al4V Alloy Fabricated by Electron Beam Powder Bed Fusion

The electrochemical behavior of Ti-6Al-4V with 1 mm and 16 mm thickness prepared by electron beam powder bed fusion(EB-PBF)was investigated in phosphate buffered saline.Electrochemical results showed that EB-PBF Ti-6Al-4V with a larger component size was more resistant to corrosion compared to the smaller component,because of less acicularαʹphase content and moreβphase content.As a non-equilibrium phase in the“high-energy state”,αʹphase has a greater susceptibility to corrode and reduces the corrosion resistance of the material,whileβphase improves corrosion resistance of titanium alloys.The results show that the phase composition has a more significant effect on the corrosion performance than the grain size.

电子束粉床熔融制备镍基高温合金构件的研究进展

镍基高温合金是涡轮发动机和燃气轮机中的重要结构材料,然而其制件传统加工过程复杂、成本高昂且原材料利用率不高。电子束粉末床熔融(electron beam powder bed fusion,EBPBF)技术能够实现复杂结构制件近净成形,是一种高温合金成形的新方案。EBPBF技术实现了以Inconel 718、Inconel 625为代表的高温合金材料构件的成形,并且发展至能够成形无裂纹的高比例γ′相难焊镍基高温合金,甚至直接制备单晶体镍基高温合金构件,材料的性能达到了传统铸锻件的水平。本文回顾近年来以EBPBF镍基高温合金作为研究对象的相关文献,从工艺过程、组织调控、力学性能等角度对EBPBF制备镍基高温合金构件研究现状进行分析总结,并对未来的研究工作提出了展望。

粉末床熔融钛合金的表面抛光技术研究进展

粉末床熔融钛合金作为一种重要的金属材料,在航空航天、医疗器械以及汽车等领域得到广泛应用。然而,由于特殊的材料性质和加工方法,其表面质量与性能仍然是制约其应用的关键问题之一。对粉末床熔融钛合金的表面抛光技术研究进展进行了综述,介绍了化学抛光、电化学抛光、等离子电解抛光、激光抛光和机械抛光等技术的研究进展。这些技术为粉末床熔融钛合金的表面质量和性能满足不同应用需求提供了选择,同时还对复合抛光技术及相关技术发展进行了展望。

High-fidelity Modeling of Multilayer Building Process in Electron Beam Powder Bed Fusion:Build-quality Prediction and Formation-Mechanism Investigation

High-fidelity simulations of powder bed fusion(PBF)additive manufacturing have made significant progress over the past decade.In this study,an efficient two-dimensional frame was developed for simulating the electron beam PBF process with hundreds of tracks for the direct prediction of the build quality.The applicable parameter range of the developed model was determined by comparing the heat transfer with that in three-dimensional cases.Subsequently,powder deposition and selective melting were coupled for a continuous simulation of the multilayer process.Three powder deposition models were utilized to generate random powder particles,and their effects on the packing structure and the resultant simulated build quality were investigated.The predicted build quality was validated using experimental results from independent studies.By reproducing the building process,the defect development mechanism in a multilayer process was revealed for the coalescence behaviors of randomly distributed powder particles,which also confirmed the importance of simulation at the high-fidelity powder scale.The effects of key process parameters during multilayer and multi-track processes on the build quality were systematically investigated.In particular,the formation statuses of all tracks during the simulated building process were recorded and analyzed statistically,which provided crucial information on the printing process for understanding the building mechanism or performing uncertainty analysis.

孔结构对电子束粉末床熔融多孔钽支架变形行为及力学性能的影响

采用电子束粉末床熔融技术制备菱形十二面体、G7及简单立方3种孔结构的多孔钽支架。通过压缩试验、拉伸试验、三点弯曲试验及有限元模拟,研究孔结构对多孔钽支架变形行为和力学性能的影响。在压缩试验中,G7和简单立方结构的多孔钽支架以杆筋的屈服变形为主,而菱形十二面体支架以弯曲变形为主,导致菱形十二面体多孔钽支架的压缩强度较低。另一方面,菱形十二面体多孔钽支架具有较好的拉伸性能和弯曲性能。在拉伸变形和弯曲变形中,菱形十二面体多孔钽支架的最大应力分布均匀,均匀的结构变形使得杆筋断裂延缓;而G7和简单立方结构多孔钽支架由于应力集中在横杆上,变形初期即出现杆筋断裂。因此,应根据不同的力学性能需求,合理选择电子束选区熔化多孔钽支架的孔结构。

电子束粉末床熔融增材制造装备发展综述

电子束粉末床熔融(EB-PBF)增材制造技术具备成形效率高、成形零件应力低等优势,适用于高温合金、高熔点金属的成形,在航空航天、生物医疗等领域具有广阔的应用前景。对电子束粉末床熔融装备的研究情况进行了概述,回顾了EB-PBF装备的发展历程,汇总分析了国内外主要厂商的装备特点及研发进展,综述了抗吹粉、多材料、多束流复合3个方面装备的关键改进与创新方法。在此基础上,着重介绍了离子中和、机械装置屏蔽、近红外预热等新型成形舱改进方案,及其对工艺过程稳定性的提升效果;介绍了新型铺送粉装置改进方案对多材料成形的潜力,即该方案可有效满足多材料成形、成形效率提高等需求;此外提出并实现了多电子枪同幅加热成形、电子束-激光复合成形等突破传统单电子枪加工思路的新型成形技术。最后,总结了该方向的研究进展并对其发展前景和主要发展方向进行了展望。

激光粉末床熔融成形Ti6Al4V/AlSi10Mg合金电子束焊接工艺研究

针对激光粉末床熔融成形的Ti6Al4V合金和AlSi10Mg合金进行电子束对接试验,对比分析不同侧偏束条件下焊接接头的组织和性能。结果表明:钛侧偏束(-0.6 mm)相较于铝侧偏束(+0.6 mm)所获接头的成形更稳定、美观。铝侧偏束时,接头表面出现了大量的气孔及裂纹,接头内部也存在大量的气孔,主要聚集于铝侧熔合线上;钛侧偏束时,接头焊接缺陷的数量明显减少。两种工艺条件下的界面层均形成了一定数量的金属间化合物,铝侧偏束时以TiAl为主,钛侧偏束时形成了TiAl3、TiAl_(2)、Ti_(3)Al和TiAl等多种金属间化合物。铝侧偏束接头抗拉强度最高为81 MPa,钛侧偏束接头抗拉强度最高可达到128 MPa。两种接头均失效于反应界面层处,呈现出脆性断裂的特征。

Grain boundary and microstructure engineering of Inconel 690 cladding on stainless-steel 316L using electron-beam powder bed fusion additive manufacturing

This research explores the prospect of fabricating a face-centered cubic(fcc) Ni-base alloy cladding(Inconel 690) on an fcc Fe-base alloy(316 L stainless-steel) having improved mechanical properties and reduced sensitivity to corrosion through grain boundary and microstructure engineering concepts enabled by additive manufacturing(AM) utilizing electron-beam powder bed fusion(EPBF). The unique solidification and associated constitutional supercooling phenomena characteristic of EPBF promotes[100] textured and extended columnar grains having lower energy grain boundaries as opposed to random, high-angle grain boundaries, but no coherent {111} twin boundaries characteristic of conventional thermo-mechanically processed fcc metals and alloys, including Inconel 690 and 316 L stainless-steel.In addition to [100] textured grains, columnar grains were produced by EPBF fabrication of Inconel 690 claddings on 316 L stainless-steel substrates. Also, irregular 2–3 μm diameter, low energy subgrains were formed along with dislocation densities varying from 108 to 109 cm^2, and a homogeneous distribution of Cr_(23)C_6 precipitates. Precipitates were formed within the grains(with ~3 μm interparticle spacing),but not in the subgrain or columnar grain boundaries. These inclusive, hierarchical microstructures produced a tensile yield strength of 0.527 GPa, elongation of 21%, and Vickers microindentation hardness of 2.33 GPa for the Inconel 690 cladding in contrast to a tensile yield strength of 0.327 GPa, elongation of 53%, and Vickers microindentation hardness of 1.78 GPa, respectively for the wrought 316 L stainlesssteel substrate. Aging of both the Inconel 690 cladding and the 316 L stainless-steel substrate at 685?C for50 h precipitated Cr_(23)C_6 carbides in the Inconel 690 columnar grain boundaries, but not in the low-angle(and low energy) subgrain boundaries. In contrast, Cr_(23)C_6 carbides precipitated in the 316 L stainless-steel grain boundaries, but not in the low energy coherent {111} twin boundaries. Consequently, the Inconel690 subgrain boundaries essentially serve as surrogates for coherent twin boundaries with regard to avoiding carbide precipitation and corrosion sensitization.

Microstructure and mechanical properties of Ti-6Al-4V-5% hydroxyapatite composite fabricated using electron beam powder bed fusion

A novel, Ti-6 Al-4 V(Ti64)/Hydroxyapatite(HA at 5% by weight concentration) metal/ceramic composite has been fabricated using electron beam powder bed fusion(EPBF) additive manufacturing(AM): specifically, the commercial electron beam melting(EBM?) process. In addition to solid Ti64 and Ti64/5% HA samples, four different unit cell(model) open-cellular mesh structures for the Ti64/5% HA composite were fabricated having densities ranging from 0.68 to 1.12 g/cm^3, and corresponding Young's moduli ranging from 2.9 to 8.0 GPa, and compressive strengths ranging from ~3 to 11 MPa. The solid Ti64/5%HA composite exhibited an optimal tensile strength of 123 MPa, and elongation of 5.5% in contrast to a maximum compressive strength of 875 MPa. Both the solid composite and mesh samples deformed primarily by brittle deformation, with the mesh samples exhibiting erratic, brittle crushing. Solid, EPBF-fabricated Ti64 samples had a Vickers microindentation hardness of 4.1 GPa while the Ti64/5%HA solid composite exhibited a Vickers microindentation hardness of 6.8 GPa. The lowest density Ti64/5%HA composite mesh strut sections had a Vickers microindentation hardness of 7.1 GPa. Optical metallography(OM) and scanning electron microscopy(SEM) analysis showed the HA dispersoids to be highly segregated along domain or grain boundaries, but homogeneously distributed along alpha(hcp) platelet boundaries within these domains in the Ti64 matrix for both the solid and mesh composites. The alpha platelet width varied from ~5 μm in the EPBF-fabricated Ti64 to ~1.1 m for the Ti64/5%HA mesh strut. The precursor HA powder diameter averaged 5 μm, in contrast to the dispersed HA particle diameters in the Ti64/5%HA composite which averaged 0.5 m. This work highlights the use of EPBF AM as a novel process for fabrication of a true composite structure, consisting of a Ti64 matrix and interspersed and exposed HA domains, which to the authors' knowledge has not been reported before. The results also illustrate the prospects not only for fabricating specialized, novel composite bone replacement scaffolds and implants, through the combination of Ti64 and HA, but also prospects for producing a variety of related metal/ceramic composites using EPBF AM.

Effect of solution heat treatment and hot isostatic pressing on the microstructure and mechanical properties of Hastelloy X manufactured by electron beam powder bed fusion

Prior to the application of AM components for critical applications,it is necessary to have a better understanding of the effect of different post-fabrication treatments on the microstructure and mechanical properties of such parts.In this study,efforts were made to achieve an in-depth understanding of the effect of post-fabrication Solution Heat Treatment(SHT)and Hot Isostatic Pressing(HIP)on the microstructure and mechanical properties of Hastelloy X parts built by electron beam powder bed fusion(PBF-EB)process.The effects of SHT and HIP on porosity,microstructure,texture and mechanical properties have been investigated and compared with that of as-built PBF-EB Hastelloy X.Post-fabrication HIP treatment led to a significant reduction in the porosity content,whereas no notable difference in porosity was observed between SHT and as-built parts.There was no evidence of any recrystallization occurring following the post-fabrication treatments as elongated columnar grain structures observed within as-built part were found to be maintained even after SHT and HIP process alongside the strong<100>crystallographic texture.Emphasis was laid upon understanding the influence of SHT and HIP on mechanical properties through stress-strain curves and work-hardening behaviour.

电子束粉末床熔融制备钛铝基金属间化合物研究进展

钛铝基金属间化合物是一种理想的高温结构材料,但因存在室温塑性差、加工困难等不足而限制了其发展与应用。电子束粉末床熔融(Electron Beam Powder Bed Fusion,EB−PBF)技术能够实现近净成形,其加工中的低热应力特点适宜脆性材料的制备,是近年来广受关注的新型钛铝基金属间化合物成形方法。对用电子束粉末床熔融制备的钛铝基金属间化合物进行了介绍,并对近年来发表的以EB−PBF钛铝材料为研究对象的相关文献进行了综述。从工艺、后处理和性能表征等角度对目前的研究现状进行了分析总结,并对未来的研究工作提出了展望。

电子束粉末床熔融技术发展综述

电子束粉末床熔融技术是一种有着广泛应用前景的金属增材制造技术,低应力、高能量利用率等特点使其在高温合金、高熔点金属成形等方向有着巨大优势。近年来,随着更多研究人员及企业进入该领域,电子束粉末床熔融装备有了诸多进展,且在新材料及工艺开发方面也取得了重要突破。本文对电子束粉末床熔融技术原理、近年来进展进行综述并对其今后的发展方向进行展望。

电子束粉床3D打印TiAl金属间化合物研究进展

TiAl金属间化合物因具有低密度、高比强度、优异的高温强度和抗蠕变性能等特点,是迄今为数不多能够在600℃以上氧化环境中长期使用的轻质高温结构材料,可显著提高航空发动机推重比和燃油效率。电子束粉床3D打印(Electron Beam-Powder Bed Fusion,EB−PBF)技术具有高的能量利用率和成形效率,以及成形应力低、真空环境等诸多优势,是脆性TiAl合金最理想的增材制造技术。通过查阅国内外近20 a来EB−PBF打印TiAl合金方面的文献,从粉末原料、组织特点、力学性能、复杂构件成形及应用等方面综述了EB−PBF打印γ−TiAl合金、β凝固TiAl合金、高铌TiAl合金的研究进展,并针对目前面临的关键科学问题及实际应用难题展望了EB−PBF打印TiAl合金的发展前景和重点发展方向。

Isothermal γ →ε phase transformation behavior in a Co-Cr-Mo alloy depending on thermal history during electron beam powder-bed additive manufacturing

Powder bed fusion with electron beam(PBF-EB),allows Co-Cr-Mo(CCM) implants with patientcustomization to be fabricated with high quality and complex geometry.However,the variability in the properties of PBF-EB-built CCM alloy,mainly due to the lack of understanding of the mechanisms that govern microstructural heterogeneity,brings limitations in extensive application.In this study,the microstructural heterogeneity regarding the γ-fcc→ε-hcp phase transformation was characterized.The phase transformation during PBF-EB was analyzed depending on the thermal history that was elucidated by the numerical simulation.It revealed that isothermal γ→ε transformation occurred during the fabrication.Importantly,the difference in γ/ε phase distribution was a result of the thermal history determining which method phase transformation was taking place,which can be influenced by the PBF-EB process parameters.In the sample with a low energy input(Earea=2.6 J/mm2),the martensitic transformation was dominant.As the building height increased from the bottom,the e phase fraction decreased.On the other hand,in the sample with a higher energy input(Earea=4.4 J/mm2),the ε phase fo rmed via diffusional-massive transformation and only appea red in a short range of the lower part away from the bottom.

激光粉末床熔融(L⁃PBF)增材制造316L不锈钢制件微观表征和力学性能研究

以激光粉末床熔融(L-PBF)增材制造的316L不锈钢作为研究对象,重点研究了0°和60°两个不同成型方向对打印件显微组织和力学性能的影响,并利用原位电子背散射衍射(EBSD)技术研究了L-PBF 316L不锈钢在拉伸变形过程中组织和晶粒取向的演变过程。研究结果表明:L-PBF增材制造316L不锈钢的显微组织存在孔洞缺陷,在60°成型方向上还存在着鱼鳞状微熔池。成型方向为60°时制件的抗拉强度更高,为(645.61±15.50)MPa,0°成型方向上制件的伸长率更好,为(13.75±0.1)%。在原位拉伸过程中,随着变形量的增加,在0°成型方向上制件表现出更为显著的变化。小角度晶界的占比(体积分数)由38.1%增加到71.6%,α-Fe-BCC占比(体积分数)由0.17%增加到2.21%,平均晶粒尺寸由4.3μm减小到1.4μm,且晶粒内部在拉伸过程中出现了滑移带。在拉伸过程中,当成型方向为0°时,制件晶粒取向由初始的<101>∥Z1逐渐转变为<001>∥X1和<111>∥X1,而当成型方向为60°时,制件初始的<111>∥Z1晶粒取向逐渐转变为<111>∥X1。

Effect of Heat Treatments on Tribology Property of Ti6Al4V Alloy Under Dry Friction

Ti6Al4V alloy manufactured by electron powder bed fusion(EPBF)was separately heat-treated by stress-relief annealing at 600℃,annealing at 800℃,and solid solution at 920℃ for 1 h.Then,the friction and wear tests were conducted on the samples before and after heat treatment to analyze the properties and mechanism of friction and wear behavior.Results show that the sample annealed at 600℃ for 1 h has the optimal wear resistance,and the wear mass loss reduces by 44%.The sample annealed at 800℃ for 1 h possesses the optimal anti-friction performance,and the coefficient of friction reduces by 14%.This research provides a simple heat treatment method to improve the friction and wear resistance of Ti6Al4V alloy manufactured by EPBF.

Microstructure, precipitates and mechanical properties of powder bed fused inconel 718 before and after heat treatment

IN718 alloy was fabricated by laser powder bed fusion(PBF) for examination of microstructure, precipitates and mechanical properties in the as-built state and after different heat treatments. The as-built alloy had a characteristic fine cellular-dendritic microstructure with Nb, Mo and Ti segregated along the interdendritic region and cellular boundary. The as-built alloys were then subjected to solution heat treatment(SHT) at 980°C or 1065°C for 1 h. SHT at 980°C led to the formation of δ-phase in the interdendritic region or cellular boundary. The segregation was completely removed by the SHT at 1065°C, but recrystallization was observed, and the carbides decorated along the grain boundaries. The as-built alloy and alloys with SHT at 980°C and 1065°C were two-step aged, which consisted of annealing at 720°C for8 h followed by annealing at 620°C for 8 h. Transmission electron microscopy revealed the precipitation of λ’ and λ" in all alloys after two-step aging, but the amount and uniformity of distribution varied. The Vickers hardness of the PBF IN718 alloy increased from 296 HV to 467 HV after direct aging. The hardness decreased to 267 HV and 235 HV after SHT at 980°C and 1065°C, respectively, but increased to 458 HV and 477 HV followed by aging. The evolution of Young’s modulus after heat treatment exhibited similar trend to that of hardness. The highest hardness was observed for IN718 after SHT at 1065°C and two-step aging due to precipitation with greater amount and uniform distribution.

Review on Additive Manufacturing of Single-Crystal Nickel-based Superalloys

The conventional fabrication process for single-crystal nickel-based superalloy materials is directional solidifica-tion,which is classified as casting.With the rapid development of additive manufacturing(AM)technologies,a novel process for fabricating single-crystal superalloys has become possible.This article reviews recent research on the AM of single-crystal nickel-based superalloys.Laser AM technologies,particularly directed energy deposition,are mainly used to repair single-crystal materials.Electron beam powder bed fusion is an innovative method for the direct fabrication of single-crystal materials.Accordingly,the mechanisms of single-crystal formation during AM are analyzed to elucidate the potential of this process route.Furthermore,this article discusses the challenges faced by AM for single-crystal fabrication,and provides perspectives on the trends of future developments.