A combined method using Lattice Boltzmann Method(LBM)and Finite Volume Method(FVM)to simulate geothermal reservoirs in Enhanced Geothermal System(EGS)

With the development of industrial activities,global warming has accelerated due to excessive emission of CO_(2).Enhanced Geothermal System(EGS)utilizes deep geothermal heat for power generation.Although porous medium theory is commonly employed to model geothermal reservoirs in EGS,Hot Dry Rock(HDR)presents a challenge as it consists of impermeable granite with zero porosity,potentially distorting the physical interpretation.To address this,the Lattice Boltzmann Method(LBM)is employed to simulate CO_(2)flow within geothermal reservoirs and the Finite Volume Method(FVM)to solve the energy conservation equation for temperature distribution.This combined method of LBM and FVM is imple-mented using MATLAB.The results showed that the Reynolds numbers(Re)of 3,000 and 8,000 lead to higher heat extraction rates from geothermal reservoirs.However,higher Re values may accelerate thermal breakthrough,posing challenges to EGS operation.Meanwhile,non-equilibrium of density in fractures becomes more pronounced during the system's life cycle,with non-Darcy's law becoming significant at Re values of 3,000 and 8,000.Density stratification due to buoyancy effects significantly impacts temperature distribution within geothermal reservoirs,with buoyancy effects at Re=100 under gravitational influence being noteworthy.Larger Re values(3,000 and 8,000)induce stronger forced convection,leading to more uniform density distribution.The addition of proppant negatively affects heat transfer performance in geothermal reservoirs,especially in single fractures.Practical engineering considerations should determine the quantity of proppant through detailed numerical simulations.

Conventional Geothermal Systems and Unconventional Geothermal Developments: An Overview

This paper provides an overview of conventional geothermal systems and unconventional geothermal developments as a common reference is needed for discussions between energy professionals. Conventional geothermal systems have the heat, permeability and fluid, requiring only drilling down to °C, normal heat flow or decaying radiogenic granite as heat sources, and used in district heating. Medium-temperature (MT) 100°C - 190°C, and high-temperature (HT) 190°C - 374°C resources are mostly at plate boundaries, with volcanic intrusive heat source, used mostly for electricity generation. Single well capacities are °C - 500°C) and a range of depths (1 m to 20 Km), but lack permeability or fluid, thus requiring stimulations for heat extraction by conduction. HVAC is 1 - 2 m deep and shallow geothermal down to 500 m in wells, both capturing °C, with °C are either advanced by geothermal developers at <7 Km depth (Enhanced Geothermal Systems (EGS), drilling below brittle-ductile transition zones and under geothermal fields), or by the Oil & Gas industry (Advanced Geothermal Systems, heat recovery from hydrocarbon wells or reservoirs, Superhot Rock Geothermal, and millimeter-wave drilling down to 20 Km). Their primary aim is electricity generation, relying on closed-loops, but EGS uses fractures for heat exchange with earthquake risks during fracking. Unconventional approaches could be everywhere, with shallow geothermal already functional. The deeper and hotter unconventional alternatives are still experimental, overcoming costs and technological challenges to become fully commercial. Meanwhile, the conventional geothermal resources remain the most proven opportunities for investments and development.

The role of temperature‐enhanced fault closure in promoting postinjection pressure diffusion and seismicity in enhanced geothermal systems

Post shut‐in seismic events in enhanced geothermal systems(EGSs)occur predominantly at the outer rim of the co‐injection seismic cloud.The concept of postinjection fracture and fault closure near the injection well has been proposed and validated as a mechanism for enhancing post shut‐in pressure diffusion that promotes seismic hazard.This phenomenon is primarily attributed to the poro‐elastic closure of fractures resulting from the reduction of wellbore pressure after injection termination.However,the thermal effects in EGSs,mainly including heat transfer and thermal stress,may not be trivial and their role in postinjection fault closure and pressure evolution needs to be explored.In this study,we performed numerical simulations to analyze the relative importance of poro‐elasticity,heat transfer,and thermo‐elasticity in promoting postinjection fault closure and pressure diffusion.The numerical model wasfirst validated against analytical solutions in terms offluid pressure diffusion and against heatedflow‐through experiments in terms of thermal processes.We then quantified and distinguished the contribution of each individual mechanism by comparing four different shut‐in scenarios simulated under different coupled conditions.Our results highlight the importance of poro‐elastic fault closure in promoting postinjection pressure buildup and seismicity,and suggest that heat transfer can further augment the fault closure‐induced pressure increase and thus potentially intensify the postinjection seismic hazard,with minimal contribution from thermo‐elasticity.

Catalog of Enhanced Geothermal Systems based on Heat Sources

It is common sense that a deeper well implies higher temperature in the exploration of deep geothermal resources, especially with hot dry rock(HDR) geothermal resources, which are generally exploited in terms of enhanced geothermal systems(EGS). However, temperature is always different even at the same depth in the upper crust due to different heat sources. This paper summarizes the heat sources and classifies them into two types and five sub-types: crustorigin(partial melting, non-magma-generated tectonic events and radiogenic heat production), and mantle-origin(magma and heat conducted from the mantle). A review of global EGS sites is presented related to the five sub-types of heat sources. According to our new catalog, 71% of EGS sites host mantle-origin heat sources. The temperature logging curves indicate that EGS sites which host mantle-origin magma heat sources have the highest temperature. Therefore, high heat flow(>100 m W/m^(2)) regions with mantle-origin magma heat sources should be highlighted for the future exploration of EGS. The principle to identify the heat source is elucidated by applying geophysical and geochemical methods including noble gas isotope geochemistry and lithospheric thermal structure analysis. This analytical work will be helpful for the future exploration and assessment of HDR geothermal resources.

Comparative Study of Acid and Alkaline Stimulants with Granite in an Enhanced Geothermal System

The Enhanced Geothermal System(EGS) is an artificial geothermal system that aims to economically extract heat from hot dry rock(HDR) through the creation of an artificial geothermal reservoir. Chemical stimulation is thought to be an effective method to create fracture networks and open existing fractures in hot dry rocks by injecting chemical agents into the reservoir to dissolve the minerals. Granite is a common type of hot dry rock. In this paper, a series of chemical stimulation experiments were implemented using acid and alkaline agents under high temperature and pressure conditions that mimic the environment of formation. Granite rock samples used in the experiments are collected from the potential EGS reservoir in the Matouying area, Hebei, China. Laboratory experimental results show that the corrosion ratio per unit area of rock is 3.2% in static acid chemical experiments and 0.51% in static alkaline chemical experiments. The permeability of the core is increased by 1.62 times in dynamic acid chemical experiments and 2.45 times in dynamic alkaline chemical experiments. A scanning electron microscope analysis of the core illustrates that secondary minerals, such as chlorite, spherical silica, and montmorillonite, were formed, due to acid-rock interaction with plagioclase being precipitated by alkaline-rock interactions. Masking agents in alkaline chemical agents can slightly reduce the degree of plagioclase formation. A chemical simulation model was built using TOUGHREACT, the mineral dissolution and associated ion concentration variation being reproduced by this reactive transport model.

Multi-objective Optimization of Geothermal Extraction from the Enhanced Geothermal System in Qiabuqia Geothermal Field, Gonghe Basin

A geothermal demonstration exploitation area will be established in the Enhanced Geothermal System of the Qiabuqia field, Gonghe Basin, Qinghai–Xizang Plateau in China. Selection of operational parameters for geothermal field extraction is thus of great significance to realize the best production performance. A novel integrated method of finite element and multi-objective optimization has been employed to obtain the optimal scheme for thermal extraction from the Gonghe Basin. A thermal-hydraulic-mechanical coupling model(THM) is established to analyze the thermal performance. From this it has been found that there exists a contraction among different heat extraction indexes. Parametric study indicates that injection mass rate(Q_(in)) is the most sensitive parameter to the heat extraction, followed by well spacing(WS) and injection temperature(T_(in)). The least sensitive parameter is production pressure(p_(out)). The optimal combination of operational parameters acquired is such that(T_(in), p_(out), Q_(in), WS) equals(72.72°C, 30.56 MPa, 18.32 kg/s, 327.82 m). Results indicate that the maximum electrical power is 1.41 MW for the optimal case over 20 years. The thermal break has been relieved and the pressure difference reduced by 8 MPa compared with the base case. The optimal case would extract 50% more energy than that of a previous case and the outcome will provide a remarkable reference for the construction of Gonghe project.

裂缝分布对CO_(2)-EGS热提取的影响研究

地热能是一种极具潜力的可再生能源,已引起广泛关注。在深部地热储层中,人工改造后形成的复杂裂缝网络为热提取提供了重要通道,裂缝空间分布将会直接影响热提取率。为探究裂缝不同空间分布对采热性能的影响,以幂律分布的裂缝网络为基础,采用TOUGH2MP-FLAC^(3D)框架下建立的THM耦合模型,系统研究不同裂缝长度指数(a)、密度(β)的裂缝网络对新型增强型地热系统(CO_(2)-EGS)采热性能的影响。并以热突破时间、EGS寿命、产热率与总产热能以及产热效率5种评价指标对储层热性能进行详细评估。结果表明,在恒速注入的情况下,裂缝长度指数a越大,长裂缝占比越小,注采井之间形成的贯穿裂缝数量越少,裂缝宽度越大,致使生产温度、产热率降低越快,更早达到热突破,从而缩短EGS寿命,降低总产热能。当a相同时,裂缝密度β越大,裂缝数量越多,生产温度与产热率降低越慢,延长热突破时间与EGS寿命,提高产热量。热突破时间最高可增加15.65 a,EGS寿命增加约10 a,总产热能增加约22.77%。而当长度指数a增长时,热突破时间最多缩短了13.1 a,总产热能降低20.8%。因此,长裂缝占比提高和裂缝密度增加有助于提高注采井之间裂缝的连通性,促进流体对流换热,更好地发挥裂缝在热开采中的作用,提高采热量。研究结果为干热岩造缝增渗改造提供一定的理论指导。

Thermo-economic Investigation of an Enhanced Geothermal System Organic Rankine Cycle and Combined Heating and Power System

As a potentially viable renewable energy, Enhanced Geothermal Systems(EGSs) extract heat from hot dry rock(HDR) reservoirs to produce electricity and heat, which promotes the progress towards carbon peaking and carbon neutralization. The main challenge for EGSs is to reduce the investment cost. In the present study, thermo-economic investigations of EGS projects are conducted. The effects of geofluid mass flow rate, wellhead temperature and loss rate on the thermo-economic performance of the EGS organic Rankine cycle(ORC) are studied. A performance comparison between EGS-ORC and the EGS combined heating and power system(CHP) is presented. Considering the CO_(2)emission reduction benefits, the influence of carbon emission trading price on the levelized cost of energy(LCOE) is also presented. It is indicated that the geofluid mass flow rate is a critical parameter in dictating the success of a project. Under the assumed typical working conditions, the LCOE of EGS-ORC and EGS-CHP systems are 24.72 and 16.1 cents/k Wh, respectively. Compared with the EGS-ORC system, the LCOE of the EGS-CHP system is reduced by 35%. EGS-CHP systems have the potential to be economically viable in the future. With carbon emission trading prices of 12.76 USD/ton, the LCOE can be reduced by approximately 8.5%.

Investigations of Water Flow Behaviors Induced by Local Temperature Variations through a Single Rough Fracture for the Enhanced Geothermal Systems

In recent years,Enhanced Geothermal System(EGS)technologies have been applied to the geothermal resources production in the Hot Dry Rock(HDR).The core of EGS technologies is to adopt hydraulic fracturing in the reservoir to create a connected network of discrete fractures with the consideration of water as a working fluid for hydraulic fracturing and heat production.This paper investigates the characteristics of water flow behaviors through a single rough fracture under different temperature and pressure conditions.A single fracture model with rough fracture surfaces is constructed and then characterized,and influences of the anisotropic factor on the average tortuosity and frictional resistance coefficient of water flow through a single fracture with rough surfaces have been compared and analyzed.With consideration of other impacting factors(temperature,pressure,fracture roughness),the impact of mass flow rate has also been presented.Numerical simulation results present that changes of average tortuosity for water flow through a single rough facture are mainly affected by temperature.It can be observed that higher temperature leads to larger average tortuosity but the frictional resistance coefficient shows an opposite trend.As for pressure conditions,it is found that effects of pressure on average tortuosity and frictional resistance coefficient is very small,which can be neglected under high pressure conditions.Furthermore,the average tortuosity shows a progressively linear relationship with the mass flow rate.On the contrary,the frictional resistance coefficient has a negative relationship with the mass flow rate.It is revealed that when the mass flow rate reaches a critical point,the influences of temperature on the frictional resistance coefficient will be negligible.Comparisons of single rough fractures with different anisotropic factors show that values of average tortuosity and frictional resistance coefficient have positive relationships with the increase of anisotropic factors.

Fracture propagation laws of staged hydraulic fracture in fractured geothermal reservoir based on phase field model

Hydraulic fracturing is widely used in geothermal resource exploitation, and many natural fractures exist in hot dry rock reservoirs due to in-situ stress and faults. However, the infuence of natural fractures on hydraulic fracture propagation is not considered in the current study. In this paper, based on the phase feld model, a thermo-hydro-mechanical coupled hydraulic fracture propagation model was established to reveal the infuence of injection time, fracturing method, injection fow rate, and natural fracture distribution on the fracture propagation mechanism. The results show that fracture complexity increases with an increase in injection time. The stress disturbance causes the fracture initiation pressure of the second cluster signifcantly higher than that of the frst and third clusters. The zipper-type fracturing method can reduce the degree of stress disturbance and increase fracture complexity by 7.2% compared to simultaneous hydraulic fracturing. Both low and high injection fow rate lead to a decrease in fracture propagation time, which is not conducive to an increase in fracture complexity. An increase in the natural fracture angle leads to hydraulic fracture crossing natural fracture, but has a lesser efect on fracture complexity. In this paper, we analyzed the infuence of diferent factors on initiation pressure and fracture complexity, providing valuable guidance for the exploitation of geothermal resources.

Effects of fracture evolution and non-Darcy flow on the thermal performance of enhanced geothermal system in 3D complex fractured rock

In fractured geothermal reservoirs,the fracture networks and internal fluid flow behaviors can significantly impact the thermal performance.In this study,we proposed a non-Darcy rough discrete fracture network(NR-DFN)model that can simultaneously consider the fracture evolution and non-Darcy flow dynamics in studying the thermo-hydro-mechanical(THM)coupling processes for heat extraction in geothermal reservoir.We further employed the model on the Habanero enhanced geothermal systems(EGS)project located in Australia.First,our findings illustrate a clear spatial-temporal variation in the thermal stress and pressure perturbations,as well as uneven spatial distribution of shear failure in 3D fracture networks.Activated shear failure is mainly concentrated in the first fracture cluster.Secondly,channeling flow have also been observed in DFNs during heat extraction and are further intensified by the expansion of fractures driven by thermal stresses.Moreover,the combined effect of non-Darcy flow and fracture evolution triggers a rapid decline in the resulting heat rate and temperature.The NR-DFN model framework and the Habanero EGS's results illustrate the importance of both fracture evolution and non-Darcy flow on the efficiency of EGS production and have the potential to promote the development of more sustainable and efficient EGS operations for stakeholders.

深部地热能系统主要挑战与耦合储能的增强型创新开发模式

中国在中低温地热能直接利用方面早已领先全球,但在深部地热能发电方面却发展缓慢。深部高温高压环境下岩石渗透性降低,深部地热能开采需要建立工程型地热系统(Engineered Geothermal System,EGS),通过水力压裂对储层进行改造,以获得具有较高渗透性的人工地热储层。由于目前常用的深部地热能储层改造技术主要借鉴油气增产领域的水力压裂工艺,在热储改造效果、地震风险控制、高效取热等方面受到限制。首先总结深部地热能水力压裂的特点为:裂缝破坏主要以剪切机理为主;冷水回灌引起的温差效应产生拉应力会促使裂缝向更远处扩展;持续的注水使注入井井筒压力高于地层压力,有助于保持裂缝处于张开状态。因此,EGS水力压裂不需要使用支撑剂,与依靠支撑剂的油气井增产压裂完全不同。同时,系统剖析EGS面临的发电产能低、注采连通差、诱发破坏性地震以及无补贴难盈利4大难题与挑战。从创新压裂和循环利用层面提出耦合储能的增强型创新开发模式(Regenerative Engineered Geothermal System,REGS),通过数值模拟研究REGS的优点。结果表明,采用水平井非等距、非等面积、非等注水量分段压裂,可以提高注水井与生产井的连通能力。通过优化压裂工艺,采用多段压裂模式,每次压裂初始期间快速提高注水速率,而后期缓慢降低注水速率,避免井筒压力的突然波动,可以达到控制诱发地震震级的目的,避免产生实质性伤害地震。结合可再生能源大规模地下存储,既能实现多能互补,又能提高REGS项目生产寿命和盈利能力。研究成果有助于为我国深部地热能热电联产和储能一体化技术的试点和标准化推广奠定基础。

美国FORGE计划犹他州干热岩开发示范项目进展综述

21世纪是全球能源获取方式发生重要变化的时代。现有以煤炭、石油、天然气等传统资源为基础的能源正在逐渐被风能、太阳能、生物质能、地热能等环境友好、低排放的绿色能源所取代。干热岩是一种不含原生水(或含少量水但不能流动)的高温地热资源,可通过水力刺激改造形成增强型地热系统储层,从而提取数量相当可观的地热能。本文以美国能源部正在组织实施的FORGE计划犹他州干热岩示范项目为研究对象,综述了项目在场地地质条件表征、基础设施建设等方面取得的主要进展与成果,总结了项目在高温硬岩钻井、储层建造、微震监测等方面取得的广泛且深入认识,从统筹部署、组织实施、场地表征和设施建设、关键技术装备突破、数据共享等方面提出了值得我国借鉴参考的具体实践。

干热岩压裂储层布井方式优选数值模拟

增强型地热系统(EGS)是从干热岩储层中提取热能的重要手段,而布井方式是影响其采热效果的关键因素,目前开展的布井方式研究较少考虑压裂储层开采模型的影响。建立了干热岩压裂储层采热的数值模型,通过不同位置的基质岩体温度下降幅度、热提取率、采出温度和采热功率对比分析了4种不同的布井方式对EGS采热性能的影响。结果表明:相较于直井,水平井的流体热交换的面积更大,能充分开发裂缝间的热量。在生产30 a时,考虑水力压裂裂缝连通的情况下,水平井一注两采模型的采热效率最高,其在垂直于井方向上温度波及范围约690 m,基质岩体平均温度下降38.09 K,热提取率为24.42%,采热功率为3.5 MW。研究成果为提高地热系统产热量、实现干热岩高效可持续开发提供了理论参考。

美国能源部地热钻井技术研发最新部署及干热岩开发示范创新实践

与其他主要的可再生能源相比,地热能是唯一能够提供基本负载电力的能源。干热岩是指不含原生水或含少量水的高温深部岩体,可通过水力刺激改造形成增强型地热系统储层,从而提取数量可观的地热能。干热岩型地热资源的开发面临两方面主要技术挑战,一是花岗岩和玄武岩等极坚硬岩石对机械钻速的限制,二是钻井所处地层温度超过随钻测量和旋转导向等工具电子设备的运行温度上限。近年来,美国能源部资助的FORGE计划犹他州项目为测试新的钻头技术和优化钻井作业流程提供了机会,以逐步提升机械钻速并降低钻井成本。本文综述了美国能源部地热技术办公室近年发展规划中对地热钻井技术研发的部署,重点分析了犹他州项目在钻井实践过程中对基于物理限制因素重新设计的工作流程的应用,总结了美国能源部围绕地热钻井技术开展的多次规划编制以及部署实施的相关项目涉及的主要领域,以及犹他州项目在探索和实践钻井作业流程优化方面取得的认识。

美国干热岩“地热能前沿瞭望台研究计划”与中美典型EGS场地勘查现状对比

美国能源部正在实施干热岩"地热能前沿瞭望台研究计划"(FORGE计划)。它是以经典干热岩定义的干热岩勘查开发为约束,通过增强型地热系统(EGS)示范工程建设实践,形成新一代EGS试验平台。美国本着"可复制的结果=巨大的潜力"的理念,实现干热岩勘查开发技术新突破,以满足美国1亿家庭绿色电力供应为实际应用目标。中美典型EGS场地勘查现状对比结果表明:犹他州米尔福德与青海省共和县恰卜恰两个典型EGS场地具可比性,大致处于"并跑"的水平;在天然裂隙系统、原位地应力场、压裂参数获取与压裂方案制定等方面,米尔福德EGS场地有所超前。据此建议有关部门加快青海省共和县恰卜恰EGS场地进入勘查开发阶段,以提高我国干热岩勘查开发技术水平,早日实现EGS工程化。

EGS水岩作用对地热储层孔渗特征影响的模拟研究

增强型地热系统(EGS)是一种开发利用深层地热能的工程,在工程的长期运行过程中水岩作用对储层孔渗特征的影响不容忽视。以松辽盆地泉头组流纹岩和青海贵德扎仓沟地区花岗岩为研究对象,借助TOUGHREACT程序模拟EGS水热循环过程中岩性和注入水温度对水岩作用的影响,并分析研究水岩作用引起的储层孔渗特征的变化。结果表明:模拟时间达到10 a时,储层的孔隙度和渗透率在注入井附近增大,在靠近生产井的区域减小。

渤海湾盆地应用增强型地热系统(EGS)的地质分析

全球地下3～10km普遍分布的高温低渗岩体中蕴藏着巨大的热能,利用增强型地热系统(EGS)技术可以实现这部分热能的开发。本文通过对近年增强型地热系统的研究进展和经验的综述,结合区域地质分析和有限元模拟,探讨了渤海湾盆地应用增强型地热系统开发的可行性。我国渤海湾盆地处于岩石圈减薄区,区域大地热流值高,地热资源丰富;基于该区的岩石圈热状态、基底构造形态对渤海湾盆地典型剖面地下10km内的地温场进行了有限元模拟,结果表明,在基底凹陷区埋深5km处地温可达150～180℃,地温等温线随基底起伏而变化。相比美国、欧洲现有的EGS开发地区,渤海湾盆地具有相似的地温条件和地质条件,适于开发增强型地热系统。通过分区块的资源概算,得出渤海湾盆地陆上部分的增强型地热系统可及资源量可达3775GW,具有广阔的开发前景。

松辽盆地增强型地热系统(EGS)地热能开发热-水动力耦合过程

增强型地热系统地热能开发涉及到热和水动力的耦合,对应的温度和压力场时空变化特征是评价地热开发效果的关键问题。基于松辽盆地徐家围子深部地质条件,采用TOUGH2进行了地热能开发过程中裂隙-孔隙介质系统中温度和压力变化的数值模拟,分析了不同埋深水平情况下地热能开发的差别,研究了孔隙基质和裂隙介质的渗透率和孔隙度、岩石导热系数、井径、注入压力、注入温度及裂隙周围基质因素对地热能开发的影响。结果表明:采用定压力开发时生产井抽出控制整个区域的压力分布,压力梯度在注入井区域较大,并随着开发的进行,注入井的注入对压力的影响逐渐增大;温度由注入井到生产井逐渐增大,并随着开发的进行温度降低范围逐渐向生产井扩大;质量和热提取速率随时间逐渐减小。不同埋深位置的模拟结果显示,埋深大的温度相对较高,水的流动性较强,质量和热提取速率较高,压力和温度变化幅度均较大。裂隙系统的渗透率、注入井/生产井压力和注入温度、井径对深部地热开采过程中的压力和温度影响较大,从而影响热的提取效率;而孔隙基质的渗透率和孔隙度、裂隙介质的裂隙度和岩石的热传导系数的影响并不明显。

增强地热系统EGS的人工热储技术

分析了增强地热系统、干热岩发电原理,研究了系统建立人工热储的关键技术,包括人工致裂、监测、裂隙网络的连通、封闭水流循环、热储系统建模等。最后分析了芬顿山、Hijiori、苏尔士大型试验站的人工热储应用实例。