Euphorbia neriifolia L.:Review on botany,ethnomedicinal uses,phytochemistry and biological activities

The present review is intended to provide information on botany,ethnomedicinal uses,phytochemistry and biological activities of various parts of Euphorbia neriifolia(E. neriifolia). E. neriifolia has several ethnomedicinal uses. The latex of E. neriifolia is used as laxative,purgative,rubefacient,carminative and expectorant as well as in treatment of whooping cough,gonorrhea,leprosy,asthma,dyspepsia,jaundice,enlargement of the spleen,tumors,stone in the bladder,abdominal troubles and leucoderma. Leaves are brittle,heating,carminative,and good for improving the appetite and treatment of tumors,pains,inflammations,abdominal swellings and bronchial infections. Roots are used as symptomatic treatment of snake bite,scorpion sting and antispasmodic. Various plant parts or whole E. neriifolia extract and its isolates have been reported scientifically using various in-vivo and in-vitro experimental methods for anaesthetic,analgesic,anti-anxiety,anti-convulsant,anti-psychotic,anti-arthritis,anti-carcinogenic,antidiabetic,anti-diarrhoeal,anti-inflammatory,anti-thrombotic,antimicrobial,antioxidant,antiulcer,cytotoxic,death-receptor expression enhancing,dermal irritation,diuretic,hemolytic,immunomodulatory,radioprotective,scorpion venom and wound healing properties. It is reported to have chemical constituents like,neriifolin-S,neriifolin,neriifoliene,euphol,neriifolione,cycloartenol,nerifoliol,lectin,euphonerins A–G,3-O-acetyl-8-O-tigloylingol,taraxerol,antiquorin,etc. Identified chemical constituents are still required to be explored for their advanced isolation techniques and biological activities.

Cytokinin induced shoot regeneration and flowering of Scoparia dulcis L.(Scrophulariaceae)-an ethnomedicinal herb

Objective:To develop an improved protocol for micropropagation of ethnomedicinally important Scoparia dulcis(S.dulcis) L.Methods:Explants were inoculated on MS basal medium supplemented with kinelin and 6-benzylaminopurine for shoot bud induction.To enhance the shoot induction,various auxins like 3-indoleacetic acid or 3-indolebutyric acid or a-naphthylacetic acid were tested along with 2.32 M KI and 4.44 μ M BAP.The regenerated shoots were rooted in half strength MS medium supplemented with various concentrations of IAA,IBA or NAA.After roots were developed,the plantlets were transplanted to pots filled with vermiculate and sand and kept in growth chamber with 70%-80%humidity under 16 h photoperiod.After acclimatization,the plantlets were transferred to the garden and survival percentage was calculated.Data were statistically analyzed and means were compared using Duncan's multiple range test(P<0.05).Results:An in vitro method was developed to induce high frequency shoots regeneration from stem,mature leaf and young leaf explants of S.dulcis.Shoot induction on young leaf explants was most successful in MS medium supplemented with combination of two cytokinins(2.32 μ M KI and 4.44 μ M BAP) 2.85 μ M IAA,10%CM and 1 483.79 μM adenine sulfate.A single young leaf explant was capable of producing 59 shoots after 13 days of culture. Flower was induced in medium supplemented with combination of KI and BAP.Conclusions: Cytokinins are the key factor to induce the direct shoot regeneration and flowering of S.dulcis.

Ethnomedicinal values of some selected plant species in Federal College of Wildlife Management

Objective:The objective of this study was to identify the ethno-medicinal values of some selected plant species in Federal College of Wildlife Management,New Bussa,Niger state,Nigeria.Methods:Three methods of data collection were employed:(1) reconnansance survey of the College Estate was carried out to identify some selected medicinal plants found within the area:(2) field observations alongside personal recognition of some of these plant species were carried out and(3) interview was also carried out in three villages around the College Estate to determine the plants being utilized by the villagers.The villages were Kere,Labararu and Poppoi. The various uses of the identified plants and their parts used for the said purposes were recorded.One hundred people were interviewed altogether in these villages.Recorded information gathered on the medicinal uses of plants includes the type of plants,the part used to cure sickness,preparation of concoction,and the type of sickness cured.The data gathered were presented and analyzed using tables.Results:The results revealed that the identified plant species were being used in curing various diseases such as dysentery,fever, stomach pains,cough,malaria,yellow fever,diarrhea,gonorrhea,pile,body pains and other diseases.Conclusion: The study concluded that since the vast numbers of species in the study area possess medicinal values, there is need to conserve and protect the vegetation of the area from unsustainable exploitations which are the common features of vegetation in the surrounding land uses.

Acacia karroo Hayne:Ethnomedicinal uses,phytochemistry and pharmacology of an important medicinal plant in southern Africa

Acacia karroo(A.karroo) has been used as herbal medicine by the indigenous people of southern Africa for several centuries.The potential of.4.karroo as herbal medicine,its associated phytochemistry and biological activities are reviewed.The extensive literature survey revealed that A.karroo is traditionally used to treat or manage 32 and five human and animal diseases and ailmenls.respectively.The species is used as herbal medicine for diseases and ailments such as colds,diarrhoea,dysentery,flu.malaria,sexually transmitted infections(STis),wounds,and also as colic and ethnovetcrinary medicine.Multiple classes of phytochemicals such as flavonoids.phenols,phytosterols,proanthocyanidin.tannin,terpenes as well as several minerals have been identified from leaves and roots of A.karroo.Scientific studies on A.karroo indicate that it has a wide range of pharmacological activities which include antibacterial,antifungal,antigonococcal.antihelmintic,antilisterial,antimalarial,antimycobacterial,antioxidant.HIV-1 reverse transcriptase,anti-inflammatory and analgesic.Acacia karroo has a lot of potential as a possible source of pharmaceutical products for the treatment of a wide range of both human and animal diseases and ailments.Future research should focus on the mechanisms of action of the different plant parts used as herbal medicines.isolated compounds,their efficacy,toxicity and clinical relevance.

Diversity of Ethnomedicinal Plants in Boridand Forest of District Korea, Chhattisgarh, India

Present study deals with an extensive ecological assessment of natural forest areas under several in-situ conservation plots which have resulted from high rate of grazing and biotic pressure. Over-exploitation of forest and unwanted incidental fire cases decreased the diversity of several ethnomedicinally and economically valuable plants species from the Boridand forest region in Korea district, Chhattisgarh. The total number of plants reported in all three study sites, 41 plants species belonging to 26 families and 37 plant genera were identified. A field survey was conducted at three different study sites in Boridand forest, district Korea, Chhattisgarh as Plot A, Plot B and Plot C, during months March 2013 to February 2014 to identify the diversity of ethnomedicinal plants.

Shelf-Life Extension of Tomato （Lycopersicum esculentum） and Pepper （Capsicum annuum） Using Aqueous Extracts of Some Ethnomedicinal Plants

This research aimed at the use of natural products to extend the shelf life of perishable vegetables. Studies were conducted on the preservative effects of four plant extracts--Xylopia aethiopica, Piper nigrum, Tetrapleura tetraptera and Carica papaya seeds on tomato and pepper. Tomato and pepper were dipped into four different concentrations of aqueous extracts of the four plants as well as water serving as control. The result of the study showed that aqueous extract of all plants extended the shelf life of tomato and pepper with increasing concentration of the extracts, except for Carica papaya seeds which produced significant elongation of 12.0 ±0.6 d and 14.0 ± 0.7 d on tomato and pepper, respectively, at the least concentration of 0.25 mg/mL. The results showed that these ethnomedicinal plants can serve as good and potent sources of natural preservatives which can be used to substitute existing synthetics used in the food industry.

Phytochemicals,pharmacological and ethnomedicinal studies of Artocarpus:A scoping review

This article aims to review the scientific data on phytochemical and pharmacological studies of Artocarpus collected from Malaysia as well as to highlight their usage as ethnomedicine worldwide.About 55 Artocarpus species are distributed worldwide and 32 of the Artocarpus species can be found in Malaysia.Artocarpus species are well known worldwide for their edible fruits such as Artocarpus heterophyllus(jackfruit),Artocarpus integer(chempedak),and Artocarpus communis(breadfruit).Aside from its edible fruits,the timber is valued for light constructions,crates,large canoes,and boats.The literature for this review was searched using the term‘Artocarpus’,‘Artocarpus Malaysia’,‘Artocarpus extracts’,‘Artocarpus traditional medicine’and‘Artocarpus ethnomedicine’from published books and scientific journals via various engines such as The Web of Science,PubMed,Science Direct,Scopus,Research Gate,and Google Scholar.The references cited from the retrieved articles were also scanned and cross-checked.All published studies on phytochemical and pharmacological activities of Malaysia’s Artocarpus species up to January 2021 were included in this review.Articles on phytochemical studies of Malaysia’s Artocarpus revealed the isolation of flavonoids as the major constituents.Research on pharmacological activities of the isolated phytochemicals showed that these compounds exhibited significant disease-linkedenzyme(tyrosinase,cholinesterase,glucosidase)inhibitors as well as antioxidant,anti-inflammatory,antimicrobial,and cytotoxic activities.The ethnomedicinal data gathered are useful to understand and prioritize Artocarpus species that can contribute to potent phytochemicals and possibly new drug leads.This review also provides valuable information for the future development of isolated compounds from Artocarpus species.

Comprehensive review on ethnomedicinal,phytochemistry and pharmacological profile of Ficus Religiosa L.

Ficus religiosa L.(F.religiosa)or sacred fig is a large perennial tree belonging to the family Moraceae or mulberry family.Though the tree has pan-tropical distribution but originally it is indigenous to the Indian subcontinent and Indochina region.Popularly the tree is named"Pepal or bodhi tree".Traditionally,it is practiced for the treatment of asthma,nose bleeding,heart disorders,diabetes,wound healing,ear problems,constipation,hyperlipidemia,gonorrhea,ulcers and infectious disorders.Chemical analysis demonstrated the presence of numerous bioactives including tannins,phenols,saponins,sugars,alkaloids,methionine,terpenoids,flavonoids,glycosides,proteins,separated amino acids,essential and volatile oils and steroids etc.,which are probably responsible for its diverse pharmacological actions.The present work is an attempt to compile up-to-date comprehensive information on F.religiosa that covers its taxonomy,ethnomedicinal importance,phytochemistry,pharmacological attributes and clinical trials.Keeping in mind the various health attributes of F.religiosa,future research can be aimed at in-depth elucidation of the structure-function relationship and multifactorial signalings pathways.

Ethnomedicinal knowledge of indigenous communities and pharmaceutical potential of rainforest ecosystems in Fiji Islands

The World Health Organization recently raised concerns about antimicrobial resistance and lack of novel antibiotics in the health sector. The success rate of drug discovery is higher when chemical constituents are sourced from natural products and when drug candidates are based on the indigenous knowledge of local communities. Tropical rainforests are an important source of medicinal plants for traditional healthcare systems. The pharmaceutical industry also recognizes the potential of rainforests in novel drug development. However, habitat degradation and loss of traditional knowledge are endangering the healing powers of nature. The islands of Fiji have a rich cultural history of traditional medicine and a number of medicinal plants are sourced from the country's rainforest ecosystems. While deforestation and forest degradation are decimating unique rainforest biodiversity and reducing access to medicinal plants in the wild, inter-generational erosion of ethnobotanical knowledge is attributed to acculturation, rural-urban migration and their effects on the transmission of oral traditions from one generation to another. Under these conditions, plants may disappear before their therapeutic value is formally identified. This review summarizes the importance of traditional medicinal knowledge and the potential for drug discovery from the tropical rainforest ecosystems of Fiji. However, there are several challenges that need to be addressed to realize the true potential of ethnopharmacology in this country.

Ethnomedicinal, phytochemical and pharmacological updates on Hygrophila auriculata (Schum.) Hiene： an overview

This article explores the most recent evidence-based information on ethnomedicinal, phytochemical and pharmacological understanding of Hygrophila auriculata for the treatment of various diseases and health conditions. Various ethnomedicinal writings suggest the use of the plant or its parts for the treatment of jaundice, oedema, gastrointestinal ailments, diarrhoea, dysentery, urinogenital disorder, gall stones, urinary calculi, kidney stone, leucorrhoea, rheumatism, tuberculosis, anaemia, body pain, constipation, skin disease, and as an aphrodisiac. The plant has been reported to contain flavonoids （apigenin, luteolin, ellagic acid, gallic acid and quercetin）, alkaloids （asteracanthine and asteracanthicine）, triterpenes （lupeol, lupenone, hentricontane and betulin）, sterols （stigmasterol and asterol）, minerals, amino acids, fatty acids, aliphatic esters and essential oils. Extracts and bioactive compounds from the plant have been found to possess antimicrobial, anthelmintic, antitermite, nephroprotective, hepatoprotective, central nervous system protective, antitumour, antidiabetic, anticataract, antioxidant, haematopoietic, diuretic, antinociceptive, anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, antimotility, aphrodisiac, neuroprotection, anti- endotoxin and anti-urolithiatic activities. For this paper, we reviewed patents, clinical studies, analytical studies and marketed formulations from the earliest found examples from 1887 to the end of 2017.

Pharmacological, Ethnomedicinal, and Evidence-Based Comparative Review of Moringa oleifera Lam.(Shigru) and Its Potential Role in the Management of Malnutrition in Tribal Regions of India, Especially Chhattisgarh

Moringa oleifera Lam.(Shigru)(Moringaceae family) is a traditional medicine used for control of diabetes, obesity, asthma, and cardiac,liver, gastrointestinal, infective, and brain disorders, such as depression and Alzheimer's disease. In Ayurvedic literature, Shigru is among few drugs having Balya(nourishing) as well as Medohara(antiobesity) property. This review focuses on valid connections between the properties documented in ancient literature and current pharmacological knowledge of Moringa, including pharmacological actions, phytochemistry,botanical description, and how Moringa can tackle malnutrition in India, especially Chhattisgarh. All information about M. oleifera was obtained from electronic scientific databases such as PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, ScienceDirect, Elsevier, Google Scholar, Traditional Knowledge Digital Library, and Indian Traditional Books(Ancient Ayurveda literatures, The Wealth of India, and The Ayurvedic Formulary of India), postgraduate/doctoral thesis, and googling the keyword M. oleifera. M. oleifera have anti-oxidant, antimicrobial, anti-diabetic,anti-obesity, anti-inflammatory, cardioprotective, hepatoprotective, neuroprotective, gastroprotective, wound-healing properties and it can potentially tackle malnutrition. This review describes the key information related to botanical description of M. oleifera, phytochemistry,pharmacological actions, clinical studies, toxicological studies, better utilization as food therapeutics, and ethnobotanical and evidence-based comparative review of M. oleifera. M. oleifera can effectively tackle malnutrition in India, especially Chhattisgarh. The authors emphasize the need for future in-depth ethnopharmacological lead-based research and clinical studies to expand M. oleifera pharmacological activities,clinical efficacy, and safety.

Gastrointestinal Ulcers Treatment: Plants and Recipes Used by Herbalists of Abomey-Calavi and Cotonou Districts, Southern Benin

This study set out to identify plants and recipes used by herbalists in the municipalities of Abomey-Calavi and Cotonou to treat gastrointestinal ulcers and to characterize the distribution of their knowledge. An ethno-pharmacological survey was carried out in which informants who agreed freely were interviewed using a semi-structured questionnaire. A total of 85 herbalists were surveyed. The data were processed with Microsoft Excel to calculate the relative frequencies of citation of the various species mentioned by the herbalists and various indices including Simpson’s Index were adapted to test the distribution of their knowledge. Multiple regression and correspondence analysis were performed using R studio. Our results revealed that the Dendi, Ifè and Mina, all equitable in their knowledge of anti-ulcer plants, are likely to know more than the other ethnic groups. On the other hand, respondents practicing Islam are more likely to know many antiulcer plants than those practicing Vodoun and Christianity. This constant distribution of knowledge of anti-ulcer plants among the Dendi, Ifè and Mina, three different ethnic groups seems normal and attests to the fusion between these different ethnic groups in view of this knowledge. A total of 70 anti-ulcer recipes, made from 71 species of medicinal plants or non-floristic resources were recorded. Vitellaria paradoxa, Parkia biglobosa and Ocimum gratissimum were the top 03 most frequently cited in descending order of frequency. All the species cited are grouped into 44 botanical families among which the Fabaceae, Lamiaceae and Sapotaceae were strongly represented. Benin’s flora abounds in a diversity of medicinal plant species known to herbalists in Abomey-Calavi and Cotonou for the treatment of gastrointestinal ulcers. The results of this study constitute a good archive for the selection of plant species for in-depth studies with a view to formulating improved traditional medicines for gastrointestinal ulcers.

Antidiabetic and haematological effect of aqueous extract of stem bark of Afzelia africana(Smith) on streptozotocin-induced diabetic Wistar rats

Objective:To investigate the antidiabetic properties of aqueous extract of stem bark of Afzelia africana(A.africana)and its beneficial effect on haematological parameters in streptozotocin induced diabetic rats.Methods:A total of 30 rats including 24 diabetic and 6 normal rats were used for this study.Diabetes was induced in male Wistar rats by intraperitoneal injection of streptozotocin.After being confirmed diabetic,animals were orally treated with distilled water or extracts at 100 or 200 mg/kg body weight daily for 10 days.The haematological parameters including red blood and white blood cells and their functional indices were evaluated in diabetic treated groups compared with the controls.Results:The extract significantly reduced the blood glucose levels while the best result was obtained at 200 mg/kg body weight The feed and water intake in diabetic rats were significantly reduced while weight loss was minimized at both dosages.Similarly,the levels of red blood,white blood cells and their functional indices were significantly improved after extract administration at both doses.Conclusions:It can be concluded that the aqueous extract of bark of A.africana possesses antihyperglycemic properties.In addition,the extract can prevent various complications of diabetes and improve some haematological parameters.Further experimental investigation is needed to exploit its relevant therapeutic effect to substantiate its ethnomedicinal usage.

Medico-ethnobotanical studies of Odisha state, India for urogenital disorders: a review

Objective:This manuscript is inspired by the usage of traditional medicines i.e.,Ethnomedicines.It aims to collect the available data on Odisha’s native medicinal flora to provide a relatively updated,comprehensive,and categorized idea on ethnomedicinal species with their therapeutic usage.This survey reveals about 264 medicinal plant species frequently used by different non-tribal and tribal communities of the study area in the prevention and treatment of 11 different urogenital disorders or related issues.Methods:The data from different published research and review articles confined to ethnomedicinal plants in different scientific databases like Google,ScienceDirect,Pubmed,etc were captured by specific keywords.Results:The relevant information regarding correct taxonomic identification with family,common locally assigned names,plant parts that are in use with the correct mode of administration concerning different health ailments about the urogenital system has been analyzed in this review.Conclusion:This paper presents a compilation of commonly used plant parts administered in different parts of Odisha,to treat various urogenital issues.This could provide great potential for the discovery of more potent bioactive compounds,which are produced as the secondary metabolites by the medicinal flora.Hence further phytochemical screening,antimicrobial studies on these plant parts need to be conducted to explore their potential as important medicinal plant species.

The Genus Terminalia(Combretaceae):An Ethnopharmacological,Phytochemical and Pharmacological Review

Terminalia Linn,a genus of mostly medium or large trees in the family Combretaceae with about 250 species in the world,is distributed mainly in southern Asia,Himalayas,Madagascar,Australia,and the tropical and subtropical regions of Africa.Many species are used widely in many traditional medicinal systems,e.g.,traditional Chinese medicine,Tibetan medicine,and Indian Ayurvedic medicine practices.So far,about 39 species have been phytochemically studied,which led to the identification of 368 compounds,including terpenoids,tannins,flavonoids,phenylpropanoids,simple phenolics and so on.Some of the isolates showed various bioactivities,in vitro or in vivo,such as antitumor,anti HIV-1,antifungal,antimicrobial,antimalarial,antioxidant,diarrhea and analgesic.This review covers research articles from 1934 to 2018,retrieved from SciFinder,Wikipedia,Google Scholar,Chinese Knowledge Network and Baidu Scholar by using“Terminalia”as the search term(“all fields”)with no specific time frame setting for the search.Thirty-nine important medicinal and edible Terminalia species were selected and summarized on their geographical distribution,traditional uses,phytochemistry and related pharmacological activities.

Therapeutic roles of plants for 15 hypothesised causal bases of Alzheimer’s disease

Alzheimer’s disease(AD)is progressive and ultimately fatal,with current drugs failing to reverse and cure it.This study aimed to find plant species which may provide therapeutic bioactivities targeted to causal agents proposed to be driving AD.A novel toolkit methodology was employed,whereby clinical symptoms were translated into categories recognized in ethnomedicine.These categories were applied to find plant species with therapeutic effects,mined from ethnomedical surveys.Survey locations were mapped to assess how this data is at risk.Bioactivities were found of therapeutic relevance to 15 hypothesised causal bases for AD.107 species with an ethnological report of memory improvement demonstrated therapeutic activity for all these 15 causal bases.The majority of the surveys were found to reside within biodiversity hotspots(centres of high biodiversity under threat),with loss of traditional knowledge the most common threat.Our findings suggest that the documented plants provide a large resource of AD thera-peutic potential.In demonstrating bioactivities targeted to these causal bases,such plants may have the capacity to reduce or reverse AD,with promise as drug leads to target multiple AD hallmarks.However,there is a need to preserve ethnomedical knowledge,and the habitats on which this knowledge depends.

Trichosanthes dioica Roxb.: A vegetable with diverse pharmacological properties

Trichosanthes dioica Roxb.is a climber of the Cucurbitaceae family mainly found in tropical Asia.The fruit is widely consumed as a vegetable and different parts of this plant are used in the traditional medicine to treat various types of human ailments.In this review,we critically analyzed and presented the scientific studies on T.dioica available in three electronic databases viz.PubMed,Web of Science and Google Scholar.Our aim was to find the scientific basis of the traditional use to understand the plant’s potential in therapy.Studies have found promising antihyperglycemic,antihyperlipidemic,antitumor,cytotoxic,arsenic poisoning ameliorative,anti-inflammatory,antidiarrheal,and varieties of pharmacological activities of T.dioica.Different types of bioactive compounds have been identified and isolated from T.dioica including peptides namely trichosanthin and lectin;a number of triterpenes like cucurbitacin B,euphol,α-amyrin,-amyrin,lupeol,taraxerol,betulin,and karounidiol;sterols,steroidal saponin,tannin,flavonoids etc.T.dioica contains a number of well-known bioactive phytochemicals and the plant has shown an array of pharmacological activities in vivo.This review will expand our understanding of the therapeutic potential of T.dioica and their phytochemical basis which may help in further research on this species.

Triterpenoid Saponins from Tu Jia Ethnomedicine Bai San Qi and Their Cytotoxicity on Hep G2 and BGC-823 Cell Lines

Objective Tu Jia ethnomedicine is a unique medical system inherited and adhibited by Tu Jia minority living in central-south China. Panax japonicus C. A. Mey.(Bai San Qi,白三七) is recognized as an effective and rare medicinal plant to treat weakness, fatigue and rheumatism in Tu Jia ethnomedicine. This paper is to discover more substance evidence for the application of Tu Jia ethnomedicine. Methods Column chromatography and preparative high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) was applied for isolation and purification;1H-NMR, 13C-NMR, 1H-1H COSY, HSQC and HMBC NMR spectra were applied for structure identification;Methyl thiazolyl tetrazolim (MTT) assays were applied for cytotoxicity evaluation. Results Totally 12 known compounds were isolated by column chromatography and preparative HPLC from rhizomes of Panax japonicus C. A. Mey.(Bai San Qi,白三七). Structures of these compounds were identified by their NMR spectra. All the 12 compounds were triterpenoid saponins. Five of them were oleanolic acid type, and the remaining 7 were dammarane type. Eleven compounds were assayed for their cytotoxic activity against Hep G2 human liver cancer cell lines and BGC-823 human gastric cancer cell lines. Three of the 11 showed relatively dominant cytotoxicity against these cell lines. Conclusions A total of 12 known compounds have been identified from Panax japonicus C. A. Mey.(Bai San Qi,白三七);NMR spectra of compounds with similar skeletons showed regular characteristics;3 compounds showed relatively dominant cytotoxicity against Hep G2 and BGC-823 cancer cell lines, and the result can be valued as weak while setting the taxol as a positive control.

Sacred groves of India:repositories of a rich heritage and tools for biodiversity conservation

Sacred groves preserve a rich religious and socio-cultural heritage of Indian biodiversity from primeval times,due to their values.They act as a bridge between man and nature.Groves help to improve soil quality,replenish water resources and are pivotal for biodiversity conservation of plants and animals including rare,endemic,threatened,vulnerable species and ethnobotanical species.Most of India's sacred groves are associated with a deity or a spiritual being,who protects the grove and local people.Vegetation cover of these groves has traditional ethnobotanical value,especially in the field of ethnomedicine,which accounts for the conservation of groves over the years.Numerous plant species from sacred groves are used according to tradition and culture to prevent or cure various health problems.However,modernisation,industrialisation,increased encroachment and misuse of forest resources increasingly threaten sacred groves.These treasures of nature must be conserved by formulating and applying new laws and policies while creating awareness among people about the value of sacred groves.Toward this aim,we review the distribution,ecological and socio-cultural significance of sacred groves of India and strategies to conserve them.

Therapeutic role of Ricinus communis L. and its bioactive compounds in disease prevention and treatment

Ricinus communis L.(R. communis), commonly known as castor oil plant, is used as a traditional natural remedy or folkloric herb for the control and treatment of a wide range of diseases around the globe. Various studies have revealed the presence of diverse phytochemicals such as alkaloids.flavonoids, terpenes, saponins,phenolic compounds such as kaempferol, gallic acid, ricin, rutin, lupeol, ricinoleic acid, pinene, thujone and gentisic acid.These phytochemicals have been responsible for pharmacological and therapeutic effects,including anticancer, antimicrobial, insecticidal, antioxidant, anti-diabetic, antinociceptive,anti-inflammatory. bone regenerative, analgesic, and anticonvulsant activity. R. communis harbours phytochemicals which have been shown to target peroxisome proliferator activated receptor(PPAR), nuclear factor NF-κ-B, cytochrome p450, P38 mitogen-activated protein kinases kinase(p38 MAPK), tumor protein P53, B-cell lymphoma-extra-large(Bcl-xL) and vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-2(VEGFR-2). Considering its wide variety of phytochemicals, its pharmacological activity and the subsequent clinical trials, R. communis could be a good candidate for discovering novel complementary drugs. Further experimental and advanced clinical studies are required to explore the pharmaceutical, beneficial therapeutic and safety prospects of R. communis with its phytochemicals as a herbal and complementary medicine for combating various diseases and disorders.