Preparation and Investigation of Mechanical and Physical Properties of Flax/Glass Fabric Reinforced Polymer Hybrid Composites

Synthetic reinforced composites affect the environment adversely and have become a global concern, causing increased natural composite demand for sustainability and cost effectiveness. Glass is a popular material that is highly consumed in reinforced composites for its superior mechanical strength. As opposed to that, flax obtained from flax stalks can be used as an alternative reinforcing material with synthetic fibers to minimize manmade fiber consumption. Hence, this research work addresses a few flax/glass-reinforced hybrid composites by using a thermoset polyester matrix. Here, six categories of samples are made, like neat flax, neat glass, and flax/glass fabric reinforced hybrid composite, followed by different stacking layer sequences and hand layout techniques during processing. Afterwards, the mechanical behavior, thermal stability, morphological behavior, and water absorption of hybrid samples were investigated. Among the developed samples, neat glass (NG) composite exhibits superior mechanical properties, while neat flax (NF) shows the lowest result. It is apparent that the mechanical properties and thermal stability of hybrid samples are in between NF and NG because, by adding glass with flax fabric, the strength of hybrid samples is increased. Moreover, it is noticeable that, due to multiple stacking layers of flax and glass, hybrid 3 and hybrid 4 show better strength than consecutive single stacking layers in hybrid 1 and hybrid 2. Among all hybrid composites, the H4 shows comparatively better mechanical and thermal properties due to having the glass layers on the outermost surface. In summary, this research work demonstrated the feasibility of flax fabric with glass fabric as a reinforced hybrid composite that can be used in automobile inner bodies, household furnishing, and home interior decoration.

Preparation and Investigation of Mechanical and Physical Properties of Flax/Glass Fabric Reinforced Polymer Hybrid Composites

Synthetic reinforced composites affect the environment adversely and have become a global concern, causing increased natural composite demand for sustainability and cost effectiveness. Glass is a popular material that is highly consumed in reinforced composites for its superior mechanical strength. As opposed to that, flax obtained from flax stalks can be used as an alternative reinforcing material with synthetic fibers to minimize manmade fiber consumption. Hence, this research work addresses a few flax/glass-reinforced hybrid composites by using a thermoset polyester matrix. Here, six categories of samples are made, like neat flax, neat glass, and flax/glass fabric reinforced hybrid composite, followed by different stacking layer sequences and hand layout techniques during processing. Afterwards, the mechanical behavior, thermal stability, morphological behavior, and water absorption of hybrid samples were investigated. Among the developed samples, neat glass (NG) composite exhibits superior mechanical properties, while neat flax (NF) shows the lowest result. It is apparent that the mechanical properties and thermal stability of hybrid samples are in between NF and NG because, by adding glass with flax fabric, the strength of hybrid samples is increased. Moreover, it is noticeable that, due to multiple stacking layers of flax and glass, hybrid 3 and hybrid 4 show better strength than consecutive single stacking layers in hybrid 1 and hybrid 2. Among all hybrid composites, the H4 shows comparatively better mechanical and thermal properties due to having the glass layers on the outermost surface. In summary, this research work demonstrated the feasibility of flax fabric with glass fabric as a reinforced hybrid composite that can be used in automobile inner bodies, household furnishing, and home interior decoration.

Influence of Weave Structures on the Tribological Properties of Hybrid Kevlar/PTFE Fabric Composites

The existing research of the woven fabric self-lubricating liner mainly focus on the tribological performance improvements and the service life raised by changing different fiber type combinations, adding additive modification, and performing fiber surface modification. As fabric composites, the weave structures play an important role in the mechanical and tribological performances of the liners. However, hardly any literature is available on the friction and wear behavior of such composites with different weave structures. In this paper, three weave structures （plain, twill 1/3 and satin 8/5） of hybrid Kevlar/PTFE fabric composites are selected and pin-on-flat linear reciprocating wear studies are done on a CETR tester under different pressures and different frequencies. The relationship between the tensile strength and the wear performance are studied. The morphologies of the worn surfaces under the typical test conditions are analyzed by means of scanning electron microscopy （SEM）. The analysis results show that at 10 MPa, satin 8/5 performs the best in friction-reduction and antiwear performance, and plain is the worst. At 30 MPa, however, the antiwear performance is reversed and satin 8/5 does not even complete the 2 h wear test at 16 Hz. There is no clear evidence proving that the tensile strength has an influence on the wear performance. So the different tribological performance of the three weave structures of fabric composites may be attributed to the different PTFE proportions in the fabric surface and the different wear mechanisms. The fabric composites are divided into three regions： the lubrication region, the reinforced region and the bonding region. The major mechanisms are fatigue wear and the shear effects of the friction force in the lubrication region. In the reinforced region fiber-matrix de-bonding and fiber breakage are involved. The proposed research proposes a regional wear model and further indicates the wear process and the wear mechanism of fabric composites.

Sliding Wear of the Hybrid Kevlar/PTFE Fabric Reinforced Phenolic Composite Filled with Nano-titania

The Kevlar/polytetrafluroethylene（Kevlar/PTFE） fabric composite can be used as a self-lubricating liner of the self-lubricating bearing.Many types of nano-particles can improve the tribological performance of the polymer-based composite.Unfortunately,up to now,published work on the effect of nano-particles on the tribological performance of the fabric composite which can be used as a self-lubricating liner is quite scarce.Therefore,for the purpose of exploring a way to significantly improve the tribological performance of the fabric composite,the tribological performance of the Kevlar/PTFE fabric composite filled with nano-titania is evaluated by using the block-on-ring wear tester.The scanning electron microscopy is utilized to observe the morphologies of worn surfaces of the fabric composites and the counterparts.The tensile properties of the composites are evaluated on the universal material testing machine.The test results show that the addition of nano-titania at a proper mass fraction of the matrix resin improves the wear resistance and the tensile strength,decreases the friction coefficient,and makes the wear volume of the composite reach a relative steady state more quickly;plastic deformation and microcutting are important for the wear of the fabric composite;a lubricating layer is formed on the worn surface of the composite during sliding,and the lubricating layer is critical for the tribological performance of the composite;the formation and properties of the lubricating layer are influenced by the nano-titania particles.The proposed study on the effect of nano-titania on the tribological performance of the Kevlar/PTFE fabric composite,especially on the evolution of the worn surface of the composite,provides the basis for further understanding of the influence mechanism of the nano-particles on the tribological performance of the composite and explores a method of improving the tribological performance of the composite.

Detecting Impact Damage in Carbon Fabric/epoxy-matrix Composites by Ultrasonic F-scan and Electrical Resistance Measurement

The status and the variation of electrical resistance of impacted carbon fiber/epoxy-matrix composites were studied by ultrasonic F-scan and electrical resistance measurement The experimental results shows that impact damage energy threshold value of carbon fabric/epoxy-matrix composites can determine by using ultrasonic F-scan. When the impact energy exceeds the threshold value, damage is generated in composites. Electrical resistance of impacted composites is changed owing to the contact of each carbon fiber unit in composites, which cause a change of the series-parallel in conductors. The veracity of detecting impact damage in composites can be improved in this case.

Fabrication of A1/Al_2O_3 Composites and FGM

Al/Al203 composites of different ratios were hot-press sintered at 575~640℃ under a pressure of 30 MPa for 2 h in a vacuum furnace. It was found that the relative density of the Al/Al203 composites could be increased evidently with the rise of sinter temperature. No reaction occurred between At and Al203 at the sinter temperatures. Under 640℃-30 MPa-2 h experimental condition, Al/Al203 system FGM was successfully fabricated, and its density range changed quasi-continuously from 2.887×103 kg/m3 to 3.1909×103 kg/m3 within the middle 1.0 mm thickness range.

Geometry effect on mechanical properties of woven fabric composites

The effects of geometry on mechanical properties in woven fabric composites were explored. Two types of composites, including one-layered and two-layered composites, were designed and studied. For one-layered composites, inter-strand gap effects on the mechanical properties were studied, while three cases of geometries with inter-strand gaps in two-layered composites were evaluated. A woven fiber micromechanics analytical model called MESOTEX was employed for theoretical simulation. The predicted results show that the inter-strand gap and simple variation of the strand positions in a repeating unit cell significantly affect the mechanical properties of woven fabric composites.

The Constitutive Relation of a Fabric Membrane Composite for a Stratospheric Airship Envelope Based on Invariant Theory

The study of stratospheric airships has become the focus in many countries in recent years,because of its potential applications in many fields.Lightweight and high strength envelopes are the keys to the design of stratospheric airships,as it directly determines the endurance flight performance and loading deformation characteristics of the airship.A typical envelope of any stratospheric airship is a coated-fabric material which is composed of a fiber layer and several functional membrane layers.According to composite structure,nonlinearity and viscoelasticity are the two main characteristics of such envelope.Based on the analysis on the interaction between the different components in the micro-mechanical model of the coated-fabric,several invariant values reflecting the characteristics of the envelope material are obtained according to invariant theory.Furthermore,the constitutive equation that describes the viscoelasticity of the envelope material is derived.The constitutive equation can represent both the individual roles of the warp and weft fibers,and their further coupled interactions.The theoretical computation results were verified by off-axial tension tests.The results can help gain a deeper understanding of the mechanical mechanism and provide a reference for structural design of envelope material.

Evaluation of Impact Damage Tolerance in Carbon Fabric/epoxy-matrix Composites by Electrical Resistance Measurement

Impact damage tolerance is provided in intensity design on composites. The compression intensity of impacted composites requires more than 60% of its original intensity. The influence of impact on compressive intensity and electrical resistance of carbon fabric/epoxy-matrix composites was studied in this paper. The experimental results shows that impact can cause damage in composites, degenerate compressive intensity, and increase resistance. The electrical resistance change rate was used as an evaluation indicator of impact damage tolerance of composites. Impact damage, which results from the applying process of composites, can be identified in time by electrical resistance measurement. So, the safety performance of composites can also be improved.

Fractographic Analysis of High Performance Fabric Reinforced Composites after Ballistic Impact

To improve the ballistic resistance of the ballistic resistant composites, this paper deals with the microscopically fractographic analysis of their failure caused by Fragments Simulated Projectiles (FSP) and bullet with the objective to clarify the failure modes of the composites, and to further improve the ballistic resistance of the ballistic systems by hybridizing based on the currently market available materials.After the analysis, it has been found that the penetration of the FSP into the panels causes shear failure in the impact side of the target but extensive tension failure in the distal side of the composite target. The failure modes also include matrix fragmentation, and delamination, and with resin content as high as 30%, more filaments are broken by cutting in the composite. Compared with the failure caused by bullet, there are more cutting or shearing for the failure caused by FSP, but more compressive failure caused by bullet. This paper also discusses the effects of hybridizing different types of fabrics on the ballistic resistance of the composite based on the observations and numerical simulation.

Effect of Aramid/Carbon Hybrid on the Tensile Properties of Multilayered Biaxial Weft Knitted Fabric Reinforced Composites

The effects of aramid/carbon on tensile properties of multilayered biaxial weft knitted( MBWK) fabric reinforced composites are analyzed by experiments. The tensile tests are inducted by the SHIMADZU AG-250 KNE universal material testing machine and Aramis V6 digital image correlation( DIC) technique.More specifically,the composite samples own four hybrid ratios(Na∶ Nc= 12∶ 0,8 ∶ 4,6 ∶ 6 and 4 ∶ 8). The results showed that the aramid/carbon hybrid MBWK fabric reinforced composites showed nearly linear response until reaching the maximum load and the inserting yarns distribution on the surface of MBWK fabrics reinforced composites had a great influence on the strain pattern distribution. Besides,the tensile strength,the tensile modulus and the elongation at breakage of 0° samples and 90° samples increased with the decreasing of aramid/carbon hybrid ratio. In a word,the changes of tensile strength, tensile modulus and elongation at breakage have a lot to do with the difference of aramid/carbon hybrid ratio.

Fabrication of GaN-Based Heterostructures with an InA1GaN/AlGaN Composite Barrier

CaN-based heterostructures with an InAlCaN/AlCaN composite barrier on sapphire （0001） substrates are grown by a low-pressure metal organic chemical vapor deposition system. Compositions of the InAiGaN layer are determined by x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, structure and crystal quality of the heterostruetures are identified by high resolution x-ray diffraction, surface morphology of the samples are examined by an atomic force microscope, and Hall effect and capacitance-voltage measurements are performed at room temperature to evaluate the electrical properties of heterostructures. The Al/In ratio of the InAlGaN layer is 4.43, which indicates that the InAlCaN quaternary layer is nearly lattice-matched to the CaN channel. Capacitance-voltage results show that there is no parasitic channel formed between the InAIGaN layer and the AlCaN layer. Compared with the InAl- CaN/CaN heterostructure, the electrical properties of the InAlCaN/AlGaN/GaN heterostructure are improved obviously. Influences of the thickness of the AlGaN layer on the electrical properties of the heterostructures are studied. With the optimal thickness of the AlGaN layer to be 5 nm, the 2DEG mobility, sheet density and the sheet resistance of the sample is 1889.61 cm2/V.s, 1.44 × 10^13 cm-2 and as low as 201.1 Ω/sq, respectively.

Draping Behavior of Carbon Non-Crimp Fabrics and Its Effects on Mechanical Performance of the Hemispherical Composites

In order to investigate the draping behavior of non-crimp fabrics（NCFs）, two types of carbon NCFs with tricot-chain stitches or chain stitches were formed on a hemispherical mould via a stretch forming process. The shear angle and forming defects of the fabrics were measured on the hemisphere, under different blank holder forces（BHFs）. The results showed that increasing BHF could enhance the shear angle slightly, reduce the asymmetry for the deformation of the fabrics, and change the main type of the process-induced defects. Besides, compression tests were performed on the corresponding composite components. By analyzing the change of fiber volume fraction and structural parameters of the textile reinforcements, the effects of draping behavior of NCFs on the mechanical performance of the composites were studied. The results reveal that draping process has distinguishable impacts on the mechanical properties of the final components, which is closely related to the stitching pattern of the NCFs.

Tribological properties of PTFE-based fabric composites at cryogenic temperature

Fabric composites are widely employed in self-lubricating bearing liners as solid lubrication materials.Although the tribological behaviors of fabric composites have been extensively studied,the cryogenic tribological properties and mechanisms have been scarcely reported and are largely unclear to instruct material design for aerospace and other high-tech applications.Herein,the tribological properties of polytetrafluoroethylene(PTFE)-based hybrid-fabric composites were investigated at cryogenic and ambient temperatures in the form of pin-on-disk friction under heavy loads.The results suggest that the friction coefficients of the hybrid-fabric composites obviously increase with a decrease in wear when the temperature drops from 25 to−150°C.Moreover,thermoplastic polyetherimide(PEI),as an adhesive for fabric composites,has better cryogenic lubrication performance than thermosetting phenol formaldehyde(PF)resin,which can be attributed to the flexible chemical structure of PEI.The excellent lubrication performance of hybrid-fabric composites is attributed to the transfer film formed by PTFE fibers on the surface of fabrics.

Fabricating a smart clothing system based on strain-sensing yarn and novel stitching technology for health monitoring

Various yarn-shaped flexible strain sensors have recently been developed.However,research is lacking on additive manufacturing for smart clothing for integrating yarn sensors with commercial garments.Herein,a strain-sensing yarn is sewn into a piece of fabric through a novel stitching technique,and the influence of the stitching method and needle pitch on the sensing performance is investigated using finite element analysis(FEA).The sensing performance could be improved when the sensing yarn is self-locked in the fabric at the needle eyes,and the needle pitch was reduced to 0.5 cm,which is attributed to the enhanced stress and strain concentration.Meanwhile,the composite sensing fabric featured outstanding performance,including a low detection limit(0.1%),rapid response(280 ms),excellent durability(10000 cycles),and high stability(negligible drift and frequency independence).In addition,the remarkable wear resistance,washability,and anti-interference to ambient humidity and perspiration were obtained.Therein,the optimal stitch trace lengths of sensing yarn for detecting elbow motion,breathing,and heartbeats are discussed.Finally,a smart clothing system composed of smart clothing,data acquisition unit,and mobile APP was developed to simultaneously detect human movement and physiological signals.This work provides a reference to produce intelligent garments based on yarn sensors for health monitoring.

Recent advances on Bi_(2)WO_(6)‐based photocatalysts for environmental and energy applications

Bismuth tungstate(Bi_(2)WO_(6))has become a research hotspot due to its potential in photocatalytic energy conversion and environmental purification.Nevertheless,the limited light absorption and fast recombination of photogenerated carriers hinder the further improvement of the photocatalytic performance of Bi_(2)WO_(6).Herein,we provide a systematic review for the recent advances on Bi_(2)WO_(6)‐based photocatalysts.It starts with the crystal structure,optical properties and photocatalytic fundamentals of Bi_(2)WO_(6).Then,we focus on the modification strategies of Bi_(2)WO_(6)based on morphology control,atomic modulation and composite fabrication for diverse photocatalytic applications,such as organic synthesis,water splitting,CO2 reduction,water treatment,air purification,bacterial inactivation,etc.Finally,some current challenges and future development prospects are proposed.We expect that this review can provide a useful reference and guidance for the development of efficient Bi_(2)WO_(6)photocatalysts.

Prediction of the Enhanced Out-of-Plane Thermal Conductivity of Carbon Fiber Composites Produced by VARTM

The thermal conductivity of epoxy resin can be increased by a factor of eight to ten by loading with highly conductive particles. However, higher loadings increase the viscosity of the resin and hamper its use for liquid composite molding processes. Thus, the enhancement of the out-of-plane thermal conductivity of carbon composites manufactured by VARTM and accomplished by matrix filling is limited to about 250%. In order to derive higher increases in out-of-plane thermal conductivity, additional measures have to be taken. These consist of introducing thermally conductive fibers in out-of-plane direction of the preform using a 3D-weaving process. Measured out-of-plane thermal conductivities of 3D-woven fabric composites are significantly increased compared to a typical laminated composite. It has been shown that if introducing highly conductive z-fibers, the use of a particle filled resin is not necessary and furthermore should be avoided due to the manufacturing problems mentioned above. An existing analytical model was altered to predict the effective thermal conductivity as a function of the composite material properties such as the thermal conductivities and volume contents of fibers in in-plane and out-of-plane directions, the thermal conductivity of the loaded resin, the grid-density of the out- of-plane fibers, and material properties of the contacting material. The predicted results are compared with measured data of manufactured samples.

Fabrication of form stable NaCl-Al2O3 composite for thermal energy storage by cold sintering process

A form stable NaCl-Al2O3(50-50 wt-%)composite material for high temperature thermal energy storage was fabricated by cold sintering process,a process recently applied to the densification of ceramics at low temperature 300℃ under uniaxial pressure in the presence of small amount o f transient liquid.The fabricated composite achieved as high as 98.65% of the theoretical density.The NaCl-Al2O3 composite also retained the chloride salt without leakage after 30 heating-cooling cycles between 750℃-850℃ together with a holding period o f 24h at 850℃.X-ray diffraction measurements indicated congruent solubility o f the alumina in chloride salt,excellent compatibility o f NaCl with Al2O3,and chemical stability at high temperature.Structural analysis by scanning electron microscope also showed limited grain growth,high density,uniform NaCl distribution and clear faceted composite structure without inter-diffusion.The latent heat storage density o f 252.5J/g was obtained from simultaneous thermal analysis.Fracture strength test showed high sintered strength around 5 GPa after 50 min.The composite was found to have fair mass losses due to volatilization.Overall,cold sintering process has the potential to be an efficient,safe and cost-effective strategy for the fabrication of high temperature thermal energy storage materials.

Sliding wear behaviors of Nomex fabric/phenolic composite under dry and water-bathed sliding conditions

A Nomex fabric/phenolic composite was prepared,and its tribological properties were evaluated under dry and water‐bathed sliding conditions by a pin‐on‐disk tribometer.The resulting size of the friction coefficient for the Nomex fabric/phenolic composite in the study occurred in the following order:dry sliding condition>distilled water‐bathed sliding condition>sea water‐bathed sliding condition.The fabric composite’s wear rate from high to low was as follows:distilled water‐bathed sliding condition>sea water‐bathed sliding condition>dry sliding condition.Under water‐bathed sliding conditions,penetration of water into the cracks accelerated the composite’s invalidation process,resulting in a higher wear rate.We also found that the extent of corrosion and transfer film formed on the counterpart pin significantly influenced the wear rate of the Nomex fabric composite.Discussion of the Nomex fabric composite’s wear mechanisms under the sliding conditions investigated is provided on the basis of the characterization results.