Climate change and Chinese farmers: Perceptions and determinants of adaptive strategies

Farmers’ perceptions, beliefs, adaptive strategies, and barriers regarding climate change are critical to promoting sustainable ecosystems and societal stability. This paper is based on an extensive survey of 1 500 farmers and their households in Henan Province in China during 2013–2014. Henan is the largest agricultural province in China with over 51 million farmers. The survey results showed that approximately 57% of the respondents perceived the direct impact of climate change during the past 10 years, with 70.3% believing that climate change posed a risk to their livelihood. Not surprisingly, most farmers reported that they have adopted new measures to mitigate the negative impacts of climate change. The main barriers hindering farmers’ adopting adaptation measures were lack of funds and timely information. A multinomial logit model revealed that land ownership, knowledge of crop variety and the causes of climate change, as well as the belief of climate change, were all positively related to the likelihood of employing adaptive strategies. Moreover, the percentage of households engaging in agriculture activity, and years of engaging in farming were both negatively correlated with famer’s likelihood of adopting adaptation strategies. More importantly, farmers with high incomes were less likely to adopt adaptive strategies and more willing to engage in other business activities. In conclusion, it is important to communicate climate change related information and government policies in rural areas, promote farmer associations and other educational outreach efforts to assist Chinese farmers to deal with climate change.

Farmers′ Perception to Farmland Conversion: A Questionnaire Survey in Xining City, Qinghai Province, China

China is experiencing a fast process of farmland conversion which is conducted mainly by local governments to fuel economic development.Social tension is aroused and policy makers take great concerns on coordinating interests among different stakeholders,especially for increasing farmers′ interest.The purpose of this study is to get some insights related to land acquisition institution by exploring farmers′ perception to farmland conversion.Participatory Rural Appraisal(PRA) was applied for the investigation in peri-urban area,of Xining City,Qinghai Province,China.The total of 519 householders from 15 villages completed valid questionnaire survey from July to November,2012.The results indicate that farmland conversion has several impacts on farmers′ life.Most farmers are gradually adapting to city life.Higher living expenses and more income are perceived by farmers with average score of 4.21 and 2.69,respectively.The average scores of 2.38 and 2.46 are for improvement of life security and more job opportunities.Farmers expect to get some stable ways of compensation in addition to lump-sum compensation in cash.Stable subsidies every year and obtaining same number of land received strong proposal.And these two options are cited by 49.6% and 43.9% of respondents.Farmland conversion brings about cleaner living condition and more amenities,but lower air visibility and drier air.Results reflect landless farmers′ economic and life pressures and various demands.Local government should pay more attention to increase farmers′ income and improve rural security system.

Farmers' Perception and Awareness and Factors Affecting Awareness of Farmers Regarding Crop Insurance as a Risk Coping Mechanism Evidence from Pakistan

This study has been conducted in three districts of Punjab Province namely, Dera Ghazi Khan, Rajan Pur and Bahawalpur of Pakistan. The study showed the results of a survey of 300 farmers which was organized to assess awareness level of farmers regarding crop insurance, factors affecting the awareness level among farmers and the perception of farmers about crop insurance. Based on exploratory research work upon the responses of farmers, the average and standard deviation were calculated. Probit model was applied to explore the factors affecting the awareness level of farmers. SPSS was used for the analysis of the collected data. The results revealed that out of 300 farmers, 184 farmers were aware with crop insurance and rests of the 116 farmers were not aware. Banks and E-media were found to be the two most important sources of the awareness for the respondent farmers. In the study area, the climatic risks were reported as the most severe risks faced by the farmers. The results also revealed the existence of negative perceptions of the farmers about crop insurance i.e. farmers perceived crop insurance as a kind of tax and they believed premium was so high that it was out of range of poor farmers and only large scale farmers could afford it. Results obtained by applying Probit model revealed that ＂education＂ and ＂previously availed agricultural credit＂ were the two most important factors which affected the awareness of the farmers regarding crop insurance.

Factors influencing hybrid maize farmers' risk attitudes and their perceptions in Punjab Province,Pakistan

Hybrid maize farmers have to face diverse kinds of climate, biological, price and financial risks. Farmers＇ risk perceptions and risk attitudes are essential elements influencing farm operations and management decisions. However, this important issue has been overlooked in the contemporary studies and therefore there is a dearth of literature on this important issue. The present research is therefore, an attempt to fill this gap. This study aims to quantify hybrid maize farmers＇ perceptions of disastrous risks, their attitudes towards risk and to explore the impacts of various farm and farm household factors on farmers＇ risk attitudes and risk perceptions. The present study is conducted in four hybrid maize growing districts of Punjab Province, Pakistan, using cross-sectional data of 400 hybrid maize farmers. Risk matrix and equally likely certainty equivalent （ELCE） method are used to rank farmers＇ perceptions of four catastrophic risk sources including climate, biological, price and financial risks and to investigate farmers＇ risk aversion attitudes, respectively. Furthermore, probit regression is used to analyze the determinants affecting farmers＇ risk attitudes and risk perceptions. The results of the study showed that majority of farmers are risk averse in nature and perceive price, biological and climate to be potential sources of risks to their farm enterprise. In addition, analysis divulges that distance from farm to main market, off-farm income, location dummies for Sahiwal and Okara, age, maize farming experience, access to extension agent, significantly （either negatively or positively） influence farmers＇ risk attitudes and risk perceptions. The study delivers valuable insights for farmers, agricultural insurance sector, extension services researchers and agricultural policy makers about the local understanding of risks to hybrid maize crop in developing countries, like Pakistan, and have implications for research on farmers＇ adaptation to exposed risks.

Determinants of Farmers’ Perception of Climate Change: A Case Study from the Coastal Region of Bangladesh

Socio-economic conditions of farmers, especially in the coastal region in Bangladesh, have been severely affected because of climate change. This study was focused on analyzing the farmers’ perception of climate change by examining three vital issues: (1) description of the socioeconomic characteristics of farmers;(2) reporting on the perception of farmers experiences with climatic change;and (3) identification of the socio-economic factors associated with farmers’ perception of climate change. The study area encompasses three villages within the coastal region (Sathkhira district) of Bangladesh, a geographic region where climate change literature has highlighted as prone to accelerated degradation. A logit model, along with weighted indexes for ranking and descriptive statistics, was used to analyze the result of 100 farmers surveyed by questionnaire. We found that the majority of the farmers (88%) perceived changes in climatic conditions. Almost all farmers indicated increases in temperature, droughts, floods, cyclones, salinity level and decreasing rainfall over the last 20 years. The logit model explained that out of the nine factors surveyed;education, family size, farm size, family income, farming experiences and training received were significantly related and influential factors to perception of climate change. Therefore, government and non-governmental organizations are recommended to push forward with interventions, especially focusing on identified factors, in order to strengthen the farmers’ capacity to battle against climate change effects.

Farmers' perception and knowledge on climate change and their coping strategies to the related hazards: case study from Adiha, central Tigray, Ethiopia

Climate change adversely affects Ethiopian economy due to heavy dependence of the agricultural sector on rainfall. A decrease of rainfall and rise in temperature has been increasing the exposure of the country to frequent drought. The study was conducted in central Tigray, Adiha tabia, to examine the perception of farmers on trends of climate changes and existing coping strategies. Farmers’ knowledge of various adaptation strategies, drought early warning system and weather forecasting were assessed using focus group discussion (FGD), which consisted of 144 systematically sampled respondents. Temperature is rising while precipitation is declining from time to time. Untimely rain and frequent drought are challenging crop production in the area. Drought is perceived, both by male and female respondents, as the primary climate related hazard which is occurring frequently and affecting their livelihood. Individual’s vulnerability to this hazard varies based on their hazard coping capacity. Lack of modern early warning systems, inflexible cropping calendar and narrow choice of crop varieties should aggravates the vulnerability. Hence, improving forecasting and dissemination of climate information, developing drought resistant varieties and promoting farm-level adaptation measures like use of irrigation technologies and adjusting planting dates should be prioritized to improve community resilience to climate change.

An Empirical Study of Farmers' Perception and Behavior on Farmland Abandonment in Yunnan Province

In this study,using the PRA method,we conduct a questionnaire survey on 525 farmers in 10 typical villages in Yunnan Province,and study the farmers' farmland abandonment behavior as well as their perception. Studies have shown that there are some common problems for the villages in the inner suburbs and the villages in the outer suburbs such as small scale of rural land,dispersed plots and land fragmentation,and the scale and fragmentation problems are more prominent in the villages in the inner suburbs while the dispersed plot problems are more obvious in the villages in the outer suburbs; the levels of farmland abandonment vary in different sample villages,the farmland abandonment is more prevalent in the villages in the outer suburbs,the abandonment behavior involves more farmers,and farmers tend to abandon small plots of farmland; the proportion of the abandoned farmland perceived by the farmers in the villages in the inner and outer suburbs( especially in the inner suburbs) is significantly lower than the actual proportion,and farmers' perception greatly deviates from the actual reality; some farmers have wrong perception of farmland abandonment behavior,and even if there are farmers with correct perception,they also abandon farmland.

Farmers' perceptions of and adaptations to drought in Herat Province, Afghanistan

Drought is a significant natural hazard in Herat Province, Afghanistan. The objective of this study was to explore farmers' perceptions of the drought's prevalence and characteristics, its socioeconomic and environmental impacts, their strategies for coping with and mitigating it, and types of conflicts and resolution mechanisms. A questionnaire was completed by 147 farming households. The results indicate that farmers' perceptions regarding drought are in line with the results obtained using the precipitation data. Even though the respondents have religious belief in interpreting the weather related issues, they also perceived drought as the climatic and environmental factors such as increased temperature, decreased precipitation, and other factors like war, financial weakness, deforestation, over-exploitation of groundwater, lack of electricity supply etc. The results show that drought has had serious economic impacts, including loss of employment and reduction in crop yield and livestock production, which have reduced farmers' livelihood options and weakened their financial situation. Social impacts have included migration, a sense of hopelessness and loss, conflicts over water, health problems, impacts on the schooling of children, malnutrition, and limits to food options. Significant environmental impacts such as an increase in temperature, pasture and forest degradation, deterioration of water quality, damage to fish and wildlife habitats, and groundwater depletion were also reported. Farmers used local techniques to adapt to drought and lessen its effects. Farmers perceived irrigation water to be a major source of conflict. Local elders, water-user associations, and formal courts were reported to be the most successful conflict resolution methods. It is expected that the results of this study will support policy makers within government and development agencies in Afghanistan to develop future drought adaptation policies.

Understanding Farmers’ Perceptions of and Adaptations to Climate Change and Variability: The Case of the Maritime, Plateau and Savannah Regions of Togo

Togolese agriculture is predominantly rain-fed and hence fundamentally dependent on the vagaries of weather. Thus, it is negatively affected by climate change. The present study assesses farmers’ perceptions and adaptation to climate change to enhance policy towards tackling the challenges climate change poses to the farmers in the study area. Descriptive statistics and multinomial logit (MNL) were used to analyze data obtained from a cross-sectional survey executed during the 2013/2014 agricultural production year in the maritime, plateau and savannah regions of Togo. The analysis of farmers’ perception to climate change reveals high increase in temperature and decrease in rainfall. These results are in line with the trend analysis of climate data that records from 1961 to 2013 about the study area especially on the temperature. Furthermore, the results show that crop diversification, change in crops, find off-farm jobs, change of the amount of land, change of the planting date and plant short season variety are the adaptation methods employed by the farmers. Moreover, with respect to the multinomial logit analysis, the results highlight that education level, farming experience, access extension services, access to credit and access to climate information are the factors that enhance farmers’ adaptive capacity to climate change and variability. Thus, there is room for better adaptation if government intensifies activities of extension workers and ensures that farmers have access to affordable credit schemes to increase their ability and flexibility to adopt adaptation measures. There is also a need to include climate change communication to facilitate exchange of climatic information that could enable smallholder farmers to adapt to changing planting dates. Finally, investment in education systems and creation of off-farm job opportunities in the rural areas can be underlined as a good policy option.

Farmers Perceptions about Climate Change, Management Practice and Their On-Farm Adoption Strategies at Rice Fields in Sapu and Kuntaur of the Gambia, West Africa

Lowland rice production is highly vulnerable to extreme temperature as a result of climate change. The study analyses farmer’s perception about climate change, management practice and their on-farm adoption strategies at the rice fields of Sapu and Kuntaur study location. The selected villages were the main rice production area, where rice is a monoculture crop. Focus group discussion was held with twenty rice growing farmers at Sapuand Kuntaur, and these were divided into five groups. Personal interview and key informant involves the two village head, two youth development chairpersons (VDC) and the extension worker overseeing both villages. This was done to gain in-depth knowledge on the subject matter. The analysis results indicated that more than 50% of the rice growing farmers were female and do not undergo formal education. More than 70% of them having perceived knowledge on the causes of climate change, inorganic fertilizer use, transplanting of rice seedlings, use of improved rice varieties, and on-farm coping strategies such as changing of cropping calendar and the use of pesticides to cope with current and future climate situation.

Perception, Determinants and Barriers for the Adoption of Climate Change Adaptation Options among Nepalese Rice Farmers

This paper estimates the perceptions, determinants and barriers regarding the adoption of climate change adaptation options among Nepalese rice farmers. A multi-stage sampling technique was used to source respondents for the study, and structured questionnaire techniques were used to collect data from 773 households across seven districts (3 from Terai and 4 from the hilly region of Nepal). A binomial logistic regression model was used to detangle the determinants for the adoption of climate change adaptation options among farmers. The results revealed that approximately 80.7% of the farmers perceived change in temperature, and 90% believed that there was a decrease in rainfall in the 30-year period. In total, 77% of farming households responded that rice production and yield has decreased due to such changes, which has forced them to adopt available adaptation options. This study found that 12 adaptation options have been mainly used by rice farmers, and among them, there has been an increasing use of chemical fertilizer, climate-smart rice verities, and changes in nursery date, which are the first three adoption options. Overall, 71% of farmers adopt such adaptation options to protect themselves from perceived risk. However, farmers are facing several barriers, such as capital inadequacy, high cost of agricultural inputs, poor adaptation information provided to farmers, inadequate access to credit facilities and inadequate awareness about adaptation regarding the adoption of such options. Binomial regression results revealed that several factors influence a farmer’s choice in adaptation measures. Our findings suggest the need for greater investment to remove these barriers and institutional shortcomings and help to improve a rice farmer’s wellbeing.

Perceptions of Rice Farmers towards Production Constraints: Case Study of Niger State of Nigeria and Hainan of China

Rice yield is still low in Nigeria despite the ecological advantages. Several challenges has been traced it production. The study intend to investigate if other rice producing nations are faced with similar challenges and at what magnitude and more importantly, what can be learn to improve the rice yield in Nigeria. Based on 2013/2014 survey, a total sample of 400 famers were randomly interviewed;164 from Niger State of Nigeria and 236 from Hainan province of China. The study collate the perception of farmers to rice production constraints categorized into biotic, abiotic and socioeconomics. Biplot analysis was employed to examine multivariate pattern of their perceptions towards production constraints. The multivariate technique simultaneously displaying different yield levels and factor constraints in data matrix providing the inter-unit distances, variance and correlations of variables. According to the study, Niger state farmers identified socioeconomic constraint as the major factors to production and attributed it to lack of or insufficient investment while the Hainan farmers majorly identified abiotic constraints. The study also indicated that great potential remain to further improve rice yield in both regions especially in Nigeria given the appropriate investment on essential inputs. This study is of great use to extension officers more so, given the investment in Africa, policy makers take advantage of the bilateral and multilateral relationship to invest ease transfer of agricultural information and technologies between or among partners.

Spatial and Temporal Variation in Climate Trends in the Kyoga Plains of Uganda: Analysis of Meteorological Data and Farmers’ Perception

With global warming now a certainty, it’s important to investigate climate change elements at the local level so as to enable stake holders adapt in order to sustain their livelihoods. This study investigated local climate changes, farmers’ perception of the changes and factors affecting perception to climate change in the Kyoga plains of Uganda. Monthly maximum temperature, minimum temperature and total rainfall from four meteorological stations within the study area for period 1984-2014 were obtained to analyse seasonal, annual and decadal trends in rainfall and temperature while a survey based on 384 randomly selected farmers was carried out to investigate the perception of variation in climate change trends among small holder farmers of different socioeconomic characteristics across the Kyoga plains. Multi stage random sampling was applied in the selection of the population sample. Non parametric analysis (Mann Kendall test) was used for analyzing trends and testing significance. In the survey, farmers were asked their observations about the local climate using structured questionnaires and these were analysed using descriptive statics. Logistics regression was then used to identify the factors that determined the perceptions of farmers on climate change. Overall, trends in monthly temperature are increasing over the years but not significantly while rainfall is decreasing but equally not significantly. Seasonal and decadal temperature had significant positive trends at different stations and sub zones over the years. 67% of the farmers realised a decrease in rainfall while 56.8% perceived an increase in temperature across the agroecological zone. 56.3% perceived declining rainfall and 52% realized increasing temperature in the southern sub zone while 42% realised a decrease in rainfall and 40.6%, an increase in temperature in the northern sub zone. Belonging to a group and age has significant positive effect on farmers’ perception of climate while farming experience and access to extension workers had a significant negative effect. The results suggest the need for strengthening networking among farmers for peer learning and support and location specific intervention measures to improve perception and adaptation to climate for each of the sub zones.

Perception of Fogera Cattle Farmers on Climate Change and Variability in Awi Zone, Ethiopia

This study aimed at assessing perception of Fogera cattle farmers on climate change and variability in selected districts of Awi zone. The zone was classified as lowland (<1500), midland (1500 - 2500), and highland (>2500 m.a.s.l) based on altitudinal variation from which a total of three districts one per cluster were selected through random sampling. 150 households were selected through systematic random sampling targeting Fogera cattle owners for primary data collection. Over 36 years (from 1983-2019) of meteorological data were taken from the National Meteorological Agency. Meteorological data result confirmed that climate was changing across all the agro-ecological zones. Both the mean annual maximum and minimum temperature was considerably increasing for all agro-ecological zones whereas the mean annual rainfall was decreasing which is consistent with the farmers’ perception. Meteorological data result also showed that the short rainy and dry season rainfall indicated high interannual variability at all agro-ecological zones. Survey result revealed that 97.13% of the farmers recognized climate change and variability impact in all agro-ecological zones. About 80.91% of Fogera cattle farmers reported the incidence of negative impacts of climate change and variability on cattle. Chi-square test values of survey results show that in all agro-ecological zones frequency of drought, duration of dry spell, wind, and floods were ever-increasing (p < 0.001). Moreover, about 84.48%, 65.3%, and 60.47% of farmers owning Fogera cattle in the lowland, midland, and highland, respectively perceived the prevalence of increasing (p < 0.001) cattle mortality. In response to climate change and variability, farmers were reducing number of livestock, diversification of livestock species, and replacing Fogera cattle with small ruminants as adaptation strategies. Thus, regular prediction of climate change and variability and designing pertinent response strategies is essential to reduce the adverse impacts of climate change for enhancing resilience capacity of the Fogera cattle farmers in the study areas.

Factors Influencing Cassava Farmers’ Climate Change Risk Perception in Anambra State, Nigeria

This study analyzed the determinants of climate change risk perception among cassava farmers in Anambra state, Nigeria. The specific objectives were to describe the socio-economic characteristics of cassava farmers in the area and to examine the farmers’ climate change risk perception through examining their perception of the various sources of climate change risk. Multi-stage sampling technique was used to select one hundred and sixty (160) respondents who were selected from 40 communities and 8 Local Government Areas from across the four Agricultural Zones of the state. Data were obtained through the administration of structured questionnaire to the respondents. Data collected were analyzed using descriptive statistics, weighted mean obtained from Likert scale, and Tobit regression model. The results of the socioeconomic characteristics of farmers showed that majority of the farmers had formal education and only 15.19% had no formal education, 56.74% of the farmers had 11 years of farming experience. The farmers’ risk perception showed that the most important risk factors perceived by cassava farmers in their farm were flooding/erosion, increased frequency and intensity of rainfall and incidence of pest and diseases. The factors that influenced the farmers’ level of risk perception included age, level of education, access to extension agents and access to climate change information. Based on the findings of cassava farmers’ level of risk perception, it was inferred that the farmers have reasonable perception of climate change risk. It was therefore recommended from the findings of this research that there is need for effective and functional extension services and provision of enabling environment and policies that will help boost the socio-economic welfare of farmers as this will significantly help in the management of climate change risk in the study area.

Farmers’ perceptions of pollinators’ importance in coffee production in Uganda

Coffee (Coffea canephora) is the principal cash crop and the country’s largest agricultural foreign revenue earner in Uganda. Previous surveys confirmed that coffee grown in central Uganda was largely depending on bee pollination to set fruit set. Despite its high contribution to the economics of agricultural sector in Uganda and despite its great dependency to bees for fruit set, it is not clear if small-scale farmers are aware of the importance of managing farm-landscapes for pollination services conservation to increase coffee yield. The aim of this study was to assess farmers’ perceptions and knowledge of the importance of pollinators and pollination services conservation for coffee production enhancement. The main hypothesis was that small-scale coffee growers were not aware of the relevance of pollination services for coffee production. Farmers’ surveys were conducted in coffee-banana farming systems in central Uganda. It was found in this study that more than 90% of interviewed farmers were not aware of the role played by bees in coffee yield increase. Farmers were not willing to manage their lands to protect pollination services, particularly because they considered pollination service as an unsolicited “free service”, or as a “public good”. Farmers were not aware of the role of semi- natural habitats serving as reservoir (hiding points) for pollinators in the surrounding of coffee fields. However, they were aware of some ecosystem services delivered in the coffee- banana farming system such as planting shading trees. Only 3.3% of respondents believed that placing beehives in coffee farms could increase the yield. The study recommended the increase of the awareness of small-scale coffee growers on the importance of pollinators to increase coffee production. It is recommended that future management of pollination services are built on improving farmers’ indigenous knowledge and on adequate understanding of the ecology of the local pollinator species. There is a need to broadly scale-up best field, habitat and landscape management strategies and practices that are friendly to coffee pollinators in rural landscapes of

Farmers＇ Perceptions of Soil Fertility Status in the Savannah Zone of Centre Cameroon

In Cameroon, most farmers rely on their perceptions for fertility evaluation and choice of agricultural land units. However, because of environmental change, this knowledge is mostly disregarded. The use of farmers＇ knowledge is important for the identification of relevant information for the choice of agricultural land units. The objective of this study was to compare farmers＇ perceptions of soil fertility with a conventional scientific approach in two locations of the forest margin zone of Center Cameroon. Through interviews and soil analysis, this study spelled and weighed the relationships between farmers＇ perceptions and soil fertility status. One hundred and twenty households＇ heads were interviewed and 30 soil samples collected. Farmers＇ perceptions were used to assess the topsoil fertility status across the studied areas, while a conventional scientific approach was used to quantify soil fertility status by the means of a soil fertility index （SFI）. Results showed that farmers, for soil differentiation, used color, texture, depth, drainage and vegetation. Soil＇ names delivered key messages for their location. Although the low overall SFI approximated by the conventional approach, farmers＇ perceptions could differentiate fertility levels between soils. This knowledge is relevant for the design of technical innovations in perceived fertility niches.

Interests of Livestock Activities within Agroforestry Systems in Guadeloupe: Stakeholders’ Opinions and Farmers’ Perceptions

The Valab project (Integrated Ecosystemic value-enhancement of the Guadeloupean Forest Agrobiodiversity) is a participatory action research that aims to explore the feasibility of diversification activities within the forest understorey. In the exploratory phase of the project, we studied stakeholders’ opinions on the positive and negative impacts of introducing livestock activities within a forest environment, as well as breeders’ constraints or motivations for setting up livestock units within agroforestry systems in the private forests of Guadeloupe. To establish a diagnosis of the current situation, 51 stakeholders (St) and 49 farmers (Fr) were interviewed on their perceptions, opinions, motivations and preferences. Forty-one percent of the St has had a generally positive appreciation of livestock activities, while on the opposite 31% have had a resolutely negative posture depending on their area of expertise. Their views on the possible positive effects or negative interactions between livestock and agroforestry activities were analysed in order to suggest possible approaches for the authorities or associations. Unanimously, the farmers replied that their motivations followed economic strategies: for self-consumption or sale. But their decision-making processes were also non-economic. Many of them (36% Fr) gave importance to their activity in the construction of their identity, whether it was through a desire to perpetuate traditions or to maintain family activities. The main constraints identified were natural constraints (61% Fr), including topography, climate and predators. While 28% of Fr notified their motivations for environmental protection. Another constraint was of a technical nature (44% Fr) since farmers asked for more technical references or support services. Further researches are required to study the interactions between animals and the undergrowth by describing their respective ecosystem services in order to enhance their positive interactions.

Cash gifts,perception of social sphere and distribution of water resources for rural farmers in a typical oasis area in Northwest China

Face-to-face interviews(n=860) were conducted to determine cash-gift behavior, cognition and complexity of social relations, and family water consumption for agricultural production in a typical oasis area in Northwest China. The survey results revealed cash gifts to be the second-largest expenditure(1,330 Yuan) for rural households, far beyond the average spending on health(854.1 Yuan) or education(890.8 Yuan). The amount of cash-gift expenditures indirectly reflects a family's social relations level, and our developed Social Relations Extent Coefficient—based on cash-gift and food expenditures—can directly reflect the extent or level of these relationships. Different types of farmers or farming families have different coefficients. The coefficient also shows how social station affects a family's water resource utilization, and how water is distributed among different types of farmers. Despite the current inequities, however, promotion of better agricultural techniques and large-scale cultivation in this area could help distribute water resources more equitably and effectively.

Survey Reveals Farmers'Perceptions of Modern Life

Through a statistical analysis of the results of a field survey conducted in a moderately remote suburb of Shanghai,this article investigates the common problems and concerns that farmers are facing during the process of marketization. In evaluating the level of rural development,farmers pay more attention to social security and their living conditions than an increase in income. Whilst playing a prominent role in the development of the rural economy and environmental governance, the government has failed to adequately cultivate community culture and public spiritual life. The government policies on building a new socialist countryside focus on those issues of most concern to farmers: income,employment,education,social security and rural environmental governance,whilst neglecting the cultural life of farmers.