Multi-dimensional force sensor for haptic interaction:a review

Haptic interaction plays an important role in the virtual reality technology,which let a person not only view the 3D virtual environment but also realistically touch the virtual environment.As a key part of haptic interaction,force feedback has become an essential function for the haptic interaction.Therefore,multi-dimensional force sensors are widely used in the fields of virtual reality and augmented reality.In this paper,some conventional multi-dimensional force sensors based on different measurement principles,such as resistive,capacitive,piezoelectric,are briefly introduced.Then the mechanical structures of the elastic body of multi-dimensional force sensors are reviewed.It is obvious that the performance of the multi-dimensional force sensor is mainly dependent upon the mechanical structure of elastic body.Furthermore,the calibration process of the force sensor is analyzed,and problems in calibration are discussed.Interdimensional coupling error is one of the main factors affecting the measurement precision of the multi-dimensional force sensors.Therefore,reducing or even eliminating dimensional coupling error becomes a fundamental requirement in the design of multi-dimensional force sensors,and the decoupling state-of-art of the multi-dimensional force sensors are introduced in this paper.At last,the trends and current challenges of multi-dimensional force sensing technology are proposed.

ROBOT'S MOTION ERROR AND ONLINE COMPENSATION BASED ON FORCE SENSOR

Robot＇s dynamic motion error and on-line compensation based on multi-axis force sensor are dealt with.It is revealed that the reasons of the error are formed and the relations of the error are delivered.A motion equation of robot＇s termination with the error is established,and then,an error matrix and an error compensation matrix of the motion equation are also defined.An on-line error＇s compensation method is put forward to decrease the displacement error,which is a degree of millimeter,shown by the result of simulation of PUMA562 robot.

Isotropic Optimization of a Stewart-Type Six-Component Force Sensor

This paper presents the isotropic optimization of a Stewart-type six-component force sensor. First,the static model of the sensor is built by the screw theory and the forward isotropy indexes and the inverse isotropy indexes are further presented. Second,a comprehensive evaluation function is established to evaluate the isotropic performance of the sensor. By compromising all the isotropy indexes and solving the extreme value of the function,the sensor optimization process is completed and an optimal solution of a set of sensor structure parameters is obtained. Finally,the design of the components and the assembly of the prototype are established by 3D modeling software Pro-E. The verification of the isotropic performance of the sensor is conducted by the finite element analysis software ANSYS. The results obtained by our research can provide useful reference to the isotropic performance evaluation and structure design of the stewart-type six-component force sensor.

Dynamic analysis of double-layer and pre-stressed multi-limb six-axis force sensor

In order to adapt to the specific task, the six-axis dynamic contact force between end-effectors of intelligent robots and working condition needs to be perceived. Therefore, the dynamic property of six-axis force sensor which is installed on the end-effectors of intelligent robots will have influence on the veracity of detection and judgment to working environment contact force by intelligent robots directly. In this paper, dynamic analysis to double-layer and pre-stressed multi-limb six-axis force sensor is conducted. First, the structure of the sensor is introduced, and the limb number is confirmed by introducing the related definitions of convex analysis. Then, based on vibration of multiple-degree-of-freedom system, a mechanical vibration simplified model of double-layer and pre-stressed multiple limb six-axis force sensor is set up. After that, movement differential equations of sensor and the response of analytical expression are deduced, and the movement differential equations is solved. Finally, taking the double-layer and pre-stressed seven limb six-axis force sensor as an example, numerical calculation and simulation of deriving result is conducted, which verify the correctness and feasibility of the theoretical analysis.

WRIST FORCE SENSOR'S DYNAMIC PERFORMANCE CALIBRATION BASED ON NEGATIVE STEP RESPONSE

Negative step response experimental method is used in wrist force sensor＇s dynamic performance calibration. The exciting manner of negative step response method is the same as wrist force sensor＇s load in working. This experimental method needn＇t special experiment equipments. Experiment＇s dynamic repeatability is good. So wrist force sensor＇s dynamic performance is suitable to be calibrated by negative step response method. A new correlation wavelet transfer method is studied. By wavelet transfer method, the signal is decomposed into two dimensional spaces of time-frequency. So the problem of negative step exciting energy concentrating in the low frequency band is solved. Correlation wavelet transfer doesn＇t require that wavelet primary function be orthogonal and needn＇t wavelet reconstruction. So analyzing efficiency is high. An experimental bench is designed and manufactured to load the wrist force sensor orthogonal excitation force/moment. A piezoelectric force sensor is used to setup soft trigger and calculate the value of negative step excitation. A wrist force sensor is calibrated. The pulse response function is calculated after negative step excitation and step response have been transformed to positive step excitation and step response. The pulse response function is transferred to frequency response function. The wrist force sensor＇s dynamic characteristics are identified by the frequency response function.

A Sputtering Deposition of Al Enhances the Output Reproducibility in a Conducting Rubber Force Sensor

Compressive force sensors or pressure sensors are indispensable to tactile sensors in humanoid robots. It is investigated that low-cost electro-conducting rubber sheets are applied to the force sensor, of which the biggest problem is its poor reproducibility. It was found that the aluminum deposition by a vacuum evaporation method shows excellent characteristics but suffers deterioration by a radiation heating effect. The aluminum electrode was deposited by a sputtering method, known to have an advantage of a low-temperature method, and the reproducibility of the output was improved.

Stacked Structure Improves Output Reproducibility of Rubber Force Sensor

The electricity-conducting rubber force sensor is an attractive candidate as a low-cost material for tactile sensors. This article shows the evidence that the output reproducibility is largely improved when two identical sheets of the sensors are stacked. The stacked structure may reduce accidental error that is a fatal obstacle in an accurate control system.

The Anti-Vibrating-Impact Research of the Piezoelectric Resonator Force Sensor

Based on the analysis of one-dimension inertial accelerometer movement model,from which the resolution of the accelerometer inertial mass displacement equation was derived,the response of the sensor sensing element to vibration and impact of various frequencies was studied.The theoretical and experimental results show that a reasonable configuration among the sensing element inherent frequency,environmental exciting frequency and the damp factors of the sensor is the key to prevent the sensor from damage.The sensor has good anti-vibrating impact ability when the relative damp factor is 0.7,and the environmental interferential vibrating frequency is less than 0.35 times of the inherent frequency of the sensing element.

Investigation of loading and force sensing properties of a probe-type microforce sensor with force-distance curves

In this paper,the force-distance curves have been employed to investigate the force sensing properties of the probe-type microforce sensors.In the preliminary studies,two kinds of probe-type microforce sensors have been used to load the objects with dry and wetted surfaces.One is a developed piezoresistive cantilever force sensor with sensitivity of 35 μN/V and the other an atomic force microscope(AFM) cantilever beam probe with sensitivity of 10.4 nN/V.The force outputs corresponding to the regimes of approaching,indenting,and loading are obtained,and the properties of the stability in the approaching regime of the sensors,local mechanical behavior of the tested objects in the indenting regime,and the force sensing of the global samples are analyzed.Experimental results of this analysis are also presented.

A novel fully-integrated miniature six-axis force/torque sensor

This paper presents a new designed miniature six DOF （degree of freedom） force/torque sensor. This sensor is fully integrated with a micro DSP （digital signal processor）, so all the signal conditioning, A/D, decoupling, digital-signals serial output are performed in the sensor. Some experimental results are presented to demonstrate the capability of the proposed design. Finally, a neural network was used for decoupling the interacting signals, compared with the conventional method using the inverse matrix, this new method is more accurate.

A novel flexure-based uniaxial force sensor with large range and high resolution

High performance force sensors often encounter the conflicting requirements of high resolution and large measurement range.To address this problem,this paper presents a conceptual design of a novel uniaxial force sensor with large range and dual-stage force resolutions which enables us to measure forces within a wide range with satisfied resolutions.The newly developed force sensor features an aluminum alloy body with a probe to transfer external forces into the sensing element.It employs an optical linear encoder to detect the displacement of the sensing body.This sensing scheme may immunize outside electromagnetic noises and therefore enhance the performance of the sensor thanks to its digital signal output.In this paper,an accurate,analytical model for calculating the static stiffness and dynamics of the system was developed by using pseudo-rigid-body-model(PRBM)methodology.To optimize the design,finite element simulations were conducted.After a prototype sensor was fabricated,preliminary characterization tests were carried out to verify the accuracy of the theoretical model and demonstrate the effectiveness of the design.The experiment results indicate that the structure of the new sensor is compact,and it has the ability to measure both micro range and macro range forces within one setup,meanwhile keeps very fine resolutions.

Optimal design and experiment research of an orthogonal-parallel six-axis force/torque sensor

A novel orthogonal-parallel six-axis force/torque sensor is studied based on a modified Stewart platform architecture,and the optimal design and experiment research of the sensor are discussed.Firstly,the model of orthogonal parallel six-axis force/torque sensor based on improved Stewart platform architecture and its static mathematical model are proposed.Secondly,according to the actual working condition of the sensor,the sensor is optimized and the optimal solution is obtained.Then,the experimental prototype and calibration system is developed.Finally,the superiority of the sensor structure and the effectiveness of the optimization method are verified by calibration experiments.The results of the proposed method are useful for the further research and application of the orthogonal-parallel six-axis force/torque sensor.

Development and Calibration of a Hyperstatic Six-component Force/Torque Sensor

The six-component force/torque sensor has become one kind of the most important sensors with the ability of measuring all the external forces and torques. A novel hyperstatic six-component force/torque sensor based on the Stewart platform structure, which can be used for the force measurement of the robot wrist, is proposed, and its structural optimal design, finite element analysis and calibration experimentation is presented. The characteristic of the sensor structure is analyzed in comparison with the traditional Stewart platform-based sensor. The mathematical expression of the sensor＇s force mapping matrix is introduced. The condition number and generalized amplifying coefficient defined by singular values of force Jacobian matrix are used to evaluate the performances of isotropy and sensitivity of the sensor respectively. The optimal design of the sensor structure is performed with the objective of achieving high measurement sensitivity and good isotropy. The sensor prototype is fabricated, and the static and dynamic characteristics of the sensor are analyzed with finite element analysis software package ANSYS. The calibration device is manufactured, and the data acquisition and processing system is developed. The theoretical and experimental study of the static calibration of the sensor prototype is carried out. The results of simulation analysis and calibration experimentation prove the feasibility of the hyperstatic sensor structure, and the contents of this paper possess theoretical significance and engineering value for the further research and practical application of the six-component force sensor.

Miniature 6-axis force/torque sensor for force feedback in robot-assisted minimally invasive surgery

In order to restore force sensation to robot-assisted minimally invasive surgery(RMIS),design and performance evaluation of a miniature 6-axis force/torque sensor for force feedback is presented.Based on the resistive sensing method,a flexural-hinged Stewart platform is designed as the flexible structure,and a straightforward optimization method considering the force and sensitivity isotropy of the sensor is proposed to determine geometric parameters which are best suited for the given external loads.The accuracy of this method is preliminarily discussed by finite element methods(FEMs).The sensor prototype is fabricated with the development of the electronic system.Calibration and dynamic loading tests for this sensor prototype are carried out.The working ranges of this sensor prototype are 30 N and 300 N·mm,and resolutions are 0.08 N in radial directions,0.25 N in axial direction,and 2.4 N·mm in rotational directions.It also exhibits a good capability for a typical dynamic force sensing at a frequency close to the normal heart rate of an adult.The sensor is compatible with surgical instruments for force feedback in RMIS.

Force and impulse multi-sensor based on flexible gate dielectric field effect transistor

Nowadays,force sensors play an important role in industrial production,electronic information,medical health,and many other fields.Two-dimensional material-based filed effect transistor(2D-FET)sensors are competitive with nano-level size,lower power consumption,and accurate response.However,few of them has the capability of impulse detection which is a path function,expressing the cumulative effect of the force on the particle over a period of time.Herein we fabricated the flexible polymethyl methacrylate(PMMA)gate dielectric MoS_(2)-FET for force and impulse sensor application.We systematically investigated the responses of the sensor to constant force and varying forces,and achieved the conversion factors of the drain current signals(I_(ds))to the detected impulse(I).The applied force was detected and recorded by I_(ds)with a low power consumption of~30 nW.The sensitivity of the device can reach~8000%and the 4×1 sensor array is able to detect and locate the normal force applied on it.Moreover,there was almost no performance loss for the device as left in the air for two months.

Calculation and Test of Hitting Force of Firing Bullet on the Bulletproof Helmet

In this paper the hit force of firing bullet on bulletproof helmet has been computed and the test device has been described. The device is divided into two parts: 1) The bullet, helmet and mould are in one system, using moment theorem to calculate the hit force; 2) The mould, sensor and support pole are in one system, using the method in reference [1] that measures the dynamic strain and displacement of simulate target of bulletproof clothes. We compute the transfigure energy and momentum energy when hitting the mould, the work done by the sensor and the expend energy of support pole. We get the hit force of helmet using energy balance principle. The result is according with the test and has been used to design the GGK93T bulletproof helmet and other serial products.

Packaging Effects on Fiber Bragg Grating Sensor Performance

In this paper, the effects of packaging material and structure of fiber Bragg grating sensor performance are investigated. The effects of thermal expansion coefficient of different embedding materials on the temperature sensitivities of the FBG sensors are studied both theoretically and experimentally with good agreement, which provides a means for selection of FBG packaging material to achieve desired temperature sensitivity. We also demonstrate a 4-point bending structured FBG lateral force sensor that measures up to 242N force with well-preserved reflection spectrum, whereas for 3-point bending structure, multiple-peaks start to occur when applied force reaches 72N.

Analysis of kinematic data and determination of ground reaction force of foot in slow squat

In the present paper, the ground reaction force （GRF） acting on foot in slow squat was determined through a force measuring system, and at the same time, the kinematic data of human squat were obtained by analyzing the photographed image sequences. According to the height and body weight, six healthy volunteers were selected, three men in one group and the other three women in another group, and the fundamental parameters of subjects were recorded, including body weight, height and age, etc. Based on the anatomy characteristics, some markers were placed on the right side of joints. While the subject squatted at slow speed on the force platform, the ground reaction forces on the forefoot and heel for each foot were obtained through calibrated force platform. The analysis results show that the reaction force on heel is greater than that on forefoot, and double feet have nearly constant force. Moreover, from processing and analyzing the synchronously photographed image sequences in squat, the kinematic data of human squat were acquired, including mainly the curves of angle, angular velocity and angular acceleration varied with time for knee, hip and ankle joints in a sagittal plane. The obtained results can offer instructive reference for photographing and analyzing the movements of human bodies, diagnosing some diseases, and establishing in the future appropriate mathematical models for the human motion.

Design and calibration of spoke piezoelectric six-dimensional force/torque sensor for space manipulator

The large manipulator outside the space cabin is a multi-degree of freedom actuator for space operations.In order to realize the automatic control and flexible operation of the space manipulator,a novel spoke structure piezoelectric six-dimensional force/torque sensor with redundancy ability,high stiffness and good decoupling performance is innovatively proposed.Based on the deformation coordination relationship,the redundancy measurement mechanism is revealed.The mathematical models of the sensor with and without branch fault are established respectively.The finite element model is established to verify the feasibility of structure and redundancy measuring principle of the sensor.Depending on the theoretical analysis and simulation analysis,the prototype of the sensor is developed.Static and dynamic calibration experiments are carried out.The actual output voltage signal of the six-dimensional force/torque sensor is collected to establish the equation between the standard input applied load and the actual output voltage signal.Based on ant colony optimized BP algorithm,performance indexes of the sensor with and without branch fault are analyzed respectively.The experimental results show that the spoke piezoelectric sixdimensional force/torque sensor with the eight-point support structure has good accuracy and reliability.Meanwhile,it has strong decoupling characteristic that can effectively shield the coupling between dimensions.The nonlinear errors and maximum interference errors of decoupled data with and without branch faults are less than 1% and 2%,respectively.The natural frequency of the sixdimensional force sensor can reach 2856.45 Hz and has good dynamic characteristics.The research content lays a theoretical and experimental foundation for the design,development and application of the new six-dimensional force/torque sensors with redundancy.Meanwhile,it will significantly improve the research level in this field,and provide a strong guarantee for the smooth implementation of force feedback control of the space station manipulator project.

Hybrid 3D printed three-axis force sensor aided by machine learning decoupling

Identification of magnitude and orientation for spatially applied loading is highly desired in the fields of not only the machinery components but also human-machine interaction.Despite the fact that the 3-axis force sensor with different structures has been proposed to measure the spatial force,there are still some common limitations including the multi-step manufacturing-assembly processes and complicated testing of decoupling calibration.Here,we propose a rapid fabrication strategy with low-cost to achieve high-precision 3-axis force sensors.The sensor is designed to compose of structural Maltese cross base and sensing units.It is directly fabricated within one step by a hybrid 3D printing technology combining deposition modeling(FDM)with direct-ink-writing(DIW).In particular,a machine learning(ML)model is used to convert the strain signal to the force components.Instead of a mount of calibration tests,this ML model is trained by sufficient simulation data based on programmed batch finite element modeling.This sensor is capable of continuously identifying a spatial force with varying magnitude and orientation,which successfully quantify the applied force of traditional Chinese medicine physiotherapy including Gua Sha and massage.This work provides insight for design and rapid fabrication of multi-axis force sensors,as well as potential applications.