Inventory and Distribution of Benthic Macroinvertebrates, Indicators of Water Quality in Four Forested Watercourses in Centre Region of Cameroon

The inventory of benthic macroinvertebrate species was carried out in some streams of the Mefou catchment area, from August 2021 to August 2022, in order to determine the biological groups that make up the population and characterise these environments. The dataset acquired during this study made it possible to update the existing database and contribute to the knowledge of the biological groups associated in these environments, and to provide additional information on the existing ones in relation to bioindication. Overall 80 families were identified and, on the basis of frequencies of occurrence greater than 75%, 22 families were retained as potential biological indicators. The remarkable diversity of insects and the low abundance of Diptera reflect the low degradation of environments and the good quality of water. The high diversity indices obtained reflect the maintenance of the favourable ecological conditions that favours the development of a balanced and, integrated biological community capable of adapting to changes.

Sediment-Loading Processes in a Forested Catchment: Modeling and Observations

In order to investigate sediment-loading processes in a catchment, the daily time series of river discharge and sediment load were applied to a semi-distributed model, the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT). The time series of discharge and sediment load were obtained by monitoring the river stage and water turbidity of the Oikamanai River, Hokkaido, Japan, in the rainfall season (April-November) of 2011-2014. The catchment is forested (ca 90% area) but underlain by the Neogene sedimentary rocks with currently active faults and forest soils with tephra layers, which tend to frequently produce slope failure such as landslide and bank collapse by rainfall or snowmelt. The water turbidity, T, in ppm was converted into suspended sediment concentration, SSC, in g/L by applying the linear relationship between T and SSC. The acquisition of the time series of discharge, Q (m3/s) and sediment load, L (=Q·SSC in g/s) of the river allowed us to distinguish the fluvial sediment transport, accompanied by slope failure in the upstream, from that under no slope failure. The SWAT was used to simulate soil erosion and identify the region prone to the soil erosion in the Oikamanai River basin. The model’s results showed a satisfactory agreement between daily observed and simulated sediment load as indicated by the high Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency. This evidences that the upper mountainous region of the catchment provides a main sediment source, accompanied by slope failure.

Dynamics of mediterranean pine forests reforested after fires

Forest fires are frequent under a Mediterranean climate and have shaped the landscape of the region but are currently altered by human action and climate change.Fires have historically conditioned the presence of pine forests,depending on severity and forest regeneration.Regeneration of Mediterranean pine forests is not always successful,and a transition to shrublands or stands of resprouting species can occur,even after reforestation.This study analyses vegetation changes in two Mediterranean pine forests after severe fires and both reforested.The pines had difficulty to regenerate,even despite post-fire reforestation.The problem is the difficulty of young seedlings to survive,possibly due to increased summer drought.Problems are greater in pine species at the limit of their ecological tolerance:Pinus pinea had a much better recovery success while P.sylvestris and P.nigra virtually disappeared.Pinus pinaster had intermediate results but recovery was generally poor.A transition has taken place in many burnt areas to scrubland or to thickets of the resprouting Quercus rotundifolia,although it is not possible to know whether they will evolve into forests or remain in a sub climatic state.Resprouting species may increase fire severity but facilitates post-fire colonisation.Post-fire recovery difficulties are closely linked to issues of natural regeneration.Fire could initiate the disappearance of pine forests,but even in the absence of fire they may disappear in the long-term due to the lack of regeneration.Action is needed to increase the resilience of these forests,ensuring natural regeneration,and incorporating resprouting species in the understorey.

Remote Sensing for Analyzing Forested Landscape Structure and Land-Use Histories in Guyana’s Bauxite Mining Landscapes

Monitoring secondary forest regrowth is a priority in forest restoration strategies. A site history helps in understanding the present status of natural regeneration in the three landscapes impacted by bauxite mining. Nonetheless, high rainfall in bauxite residue storage areas can facilitate natural regeneration of forest. This research analyzed the natural regeneration of forest after thirty years of different land use histories at three bauxite mining areas of the Upper Demerara—Berbice region of Guyana. There are no man made forest plantations in the three landscapes being reviewed. The methodology included: 1) the selection of three sampling landscapes with different land use histories 2) the generation Land Use/Land Cover maps using KMeans unsupervised classification of satellite images in each landscape and 3) the assessment of landscape structure of the land cover classes for year 2020 at class and landscape level using landscape metrics. The assessment of landscape structure of the land cover classes was carried-out with landscape metrics for the comparisons at class and landscape level. Principal component analysis enables the identification of main patterns among landscape-level metrics and land cover classes. Discriminant classification of the landscape classes was analyzed with the different metrics. The results suggest that Normalized Difference Vegetation Index and KMeans unsupervised classification can be used to evaluate the difference in natural forest regeneration among landscapes with differing land use histories. The landscape metrics revealed secondary stages of forest succession. The Landscape Shape Index and Edge Density were the most significant for landscape differentiation. The result of the various land uses reveals a mosaic of early, intermediate, and late successional sequences.

Ecosystem carbon storage and sink/source of temperate forested wetlands in Xiaoxing’anling, northeast China

Wetlands play an important role in the global carbon cycle, but there are still considerable uncertainties in the estimation of wetland carbon storage and a dispute on whether wetlands are carbon sources or carbon sinks. Xiaoxing’anling are one of several concentrated distribution areas of forested wetland in China, but the carbon storage and carbon sink/source of forested wetlands in this area is unclear. We measured the ecosystem carbon storage (vegetation and soil), annual net carbon sequestration of vegetation and annual carbon emissions of soil heterotrophic respiration of five typical forested wetland types (alder swamp, white birch swamp, larch swamp, larch fen, and larch bog) distributed along a moisture gradient in this area in order to reveal the spatial variations of their carbon storage and quantitatively evaluate their position as carbon sink or source according to the net carbon balance of the ecosystems. The results show that the larch fen had high carbon storage (448.8 t ha^(−1)) (6.8% higher than the larch bog and 10.5–30.1% significantly higher than other three wetlands (P < 0.05), the white birch swamp and larch bog were medium carbon storage ecosystems (406.3 and 420.1 t ha^(−1)) (12.4–21.8% significantly higher than the other two types (P < 0.0 5), while the alder swamp and larch swamp were low in carbon storage (345.0 and 361.5 t ha^(−1), respectively). The carbon pools of the five wetlands were dominated by their soil carbon pools (88.5–94.5%), and the vegetation carbon pool was secondary (5.5–11.5%). At the same time, their ecosystem net carbon balances were positive (0.1–0.6 t ha^(−1) a^(−1)) because the annual net carbon sequestration of vegetation (4.0–4.5 t ha^(−1) a^(−1)) were higher than the annual carbon emissions of soil heterotrophic respiration (CO_(2) and CH_(4)) (3.8–4.4 t ha^(−1) a^(−1)) in four wetlands, (the alder swamp being the exception), so all four were carbon sinks while only the alder swamp was a source of carbon emissions (− 2.1 t ha^(−1) a^(−1)) due to a degraded tree layer. Our results demonstrate that these forested wetlands were generally carbon sinks in the Xiaoxing’anling, and there was obvious spatial variation in carbon storage of ecosystems along the moisture gradient.

Hydrological functioning of forested catchments,Central Himalayan Region,India

Background:Central Himalayan forested catchments provide fresh water supply and innumerable ecosystem services to millions of people.Hence,the understanding of linkages between forests and water is very crucial for availability and quality of water at catchment scale.Therefore,the present study aims to understand the hydrological response of two forested catchments(namely,Arnigad and Bansigad)in the Central Himalayan Region.Methods:Threeyears’data(March,2008 to February,2011)were collected from meteorological and hydrological stations in Arnigad and Bansigad catchments.The present paper describes the mean hydrological response of these forested catchments investigated through detailed field investigation.Results:The annual hyetograph analysis revealed that the rainfall at both the catchments was highly seasonal,and wetperiod(June–September)plays a key role in catchment functioning.Exceedance of rainfall threshold of^200 mm(~10%of annual rainfall)significantly increased streamflow generation in both catchments.In Arnigad,the stream was perennial with a mean baseflow of^83mm per month(~6%of annual baseflow)whereas,Bansigad had greater seasonality due to lack of streamflow during the prewetperiod(March–May).Separation of hydrographs in Arnigad and Bansigad catchments i.e.stormflow(6%and 31%,respectively)and baseflow(50%and 32%,respectively)helped to understand the probability of flooding during wetperiod and drought during dryperiod.The forest ecosystem in Arnigad displayed healthier hydrological functioning in terms of reduced stormflow(82%),and enhanced baseflow(52%),soil moisture(13%),steady infiltration rate(22%)and lag time(~15 min)relative to Bansigad.These enhanced values indicated soil capability to store water in the forested catchment(Arnigad)and helped to understand the volume of water(discharge)that was available during dryperiod.The lower denudation rate at Arnigad by 41%resulted in decreased suspended sediment(18%)and bed load(75%)compared to Bansigad.Further,the enhanced dissolved solids in the Arnigad stream resulted from the higher organic matter generated in the forest floor.Conclusion:This study shows that rainfall during the wetperiod was the main driver of hydrological functioning,whereas,forests provided substantial services by regulating water balance,soil moisture and sediment budget through different mechanisms of forest components at catchmentscale in the Central Himalayan Region.

Paludification reduces black spruce growth rate but does not alter tree water use efficiency in Canadian boreal forested peatlands

Background:Black spruce(Picea mariana(Mill.)BSP)-forested peatlands are widespread ecosystems in boreal North America in which peat accumulation,known as the paludification process,has been shown to induce forest growth decline.The continuously evolving environmental conditions(e.g.,water table rise,increasing peat thickness)in paludified forests may require tree growth mechanism adjustments over time.In this study,we investigate tree ecophysiological mechanisms along a paludification gradient in a boreal forested peatland of eastern Canada by combining peat-based and tree-ring analyses.Carbon and oxygen stable isotopes in tree rings are used to document changes in carbon assimilation rates,stomatal conductance,and water use efficiency.In addition,paleohydrological analyses are performed to evaluate the dynamical ecophysiological adjustments of black spruce trees to site-specific water table variations.Results:Increasing peat accumulation considerably impacts forest growth,but no significant differences in tree water use efficiency(iWUE)are found between the study sites.Tree-ring isotopic analysis indicates no iWUE decrease over the last 100 years,but rather an important increase at each site up to the 1980 s,before iWUE stabilized.Surprisingly,inferred basal area increments do not reflect such trends.Therefore,iWUE variations do not reflect tree ecophysiological adjustments required by changes in growing conditions.Local water table variations induce no changes in ecophysiological mechanisms,but a synchronous shift in iWUE is observed at all sites in the mid-1980 s.Conclusions:Our study shows that paludification induces black spruce growth decline without altering tree water use efficiency in boreal forested peatlands.These findings highlight that failing to account for paludification-related carbon use and allocation could result in the overestimation of aboveground biomass production in paludified sites.Further research on carbon allocation strategies is of utmost importance to understand the carbon sink capacity of these widespread ecosystems in the context of climate change,and to make appropriate forest management decisions in the boreal biome.

Metabolic diversity and seasonal variation of soil microbial communities in natural forested wetlands

This study explores the effects of vegetation and season on soil microorganisms and enzymatic activity of different wetlands in a temperate climate.Microbial carbon metabolism diversity was assessed using community-level physiological profiles(CLPP)with 31 different carbon substrates.CLPP indicated that significant interactions occur during carbon substrate metabolism of the microorganisms.Furthermore,the different types of vegetation present in the wetland ecosystem combined with the seasonal effects to influence microbial carbon metabolism and enzymatic activity.The most significant differences occurred to carbohydrates,carboxylic acids,and amino acids.The Mantel test confirmed positive correlations between soil enzymatic activities and microbial carbon metabolism.Soil microorganisms in Betula ovalifolia and Carex schmidtii wetlands used carbon substrates more efficiently in summer than those in other forested wetlands during other periods.Enzymatic activities also showed a similar trend as microbial carbon metabolism.The results demonstrate that microbial carbon metabolism patterns can be used as biological indicators in wetland ecological alterations due to vegetation type or to seasonal factors.

Environmental influence in the forested area toward human health: incorporating the ecological environment into art psychotherapy

This study on the development of a psychotherapy program based on the relationship between forests and human health focused on actively considering the natural ecological environment. This study categorized and compared an art psychotherapy program that simply moved to an outdoor space and a forest-art therapy program that actively utilized the forest environment as a medium. The characteristics of the natural environment, such as openness, change, and diversity, shortened the amount of time participants took to develop a rapport and open up and played a vital role in recovering mental health. After a bold attempt at integrating forest environment and art psychotherapy by going beyond outdoor art therapy, there were significant results pertaining to improvements in mental disorders in today’s society, including stress vulnerabilities, depression, anxiety, and aggression. The research results verified that the developed forest-art therapy method had greater efficacy in relation to both the Stress Vulnerability-Interpersonal Sensitivity Scale and the Stress Vulnerability-Self-Regulation Scale.

Mushroom Production as an Alternative for Rural Development in a Forested Mountainous Area

Wild mushrooms are recognized as important non-wood forest products in mountainous ecosystems, but their real potential for generating rural economies has not been fully evaluated due to the difficulties in obtaining reliable productivity data, minimizing their true potential as contributor to rural economies. Mushroom yield models based on large data series from Pinus forest ecosystems in the region of Catalonia(Spain), combined with data from the Spanish National Forest Inventory allow us to estimate the potential mushroom productivity by forest ecosystems. The results of 24,500 tons/yr of mushrooms of which 16,300 tons are classified as edible and 7,900 tons are commonly marketed demonstrate the importance of mushroom productions in Catalonian pine forests, mostly located in mountainous areas where the development of agricultural activities is limited. Economic mushroom value is estimated at 48 million € for the edible mushroom and 32 million € for those corresponding to marketable yields, confirming the potential of this non-wood forest product. These production results and corresponding economic values provide a basis for the incorporation of wild mushrooms as significant non-wood forest products in the development of forest policies in mountainous areas.

A seed rain community in a reforested post-agricultural field and adjacent secondary forest of Mount Papandayan Nature Reserve,West Java,Indonesia

Understanding the mechanisms and barriers to the restoration of degraded land,especially post agriculture,will help provide protocols on effective ways of restoration into functional ecosystems.One of the barriers in early stages of forest restoration is the arrival and availability of propagules.Seed rain and factors affecting it(i.e.,distance to the forest edge,species diversity and surrounding vegetation)were measured in a reforested post-agricultural field and in an adjacent secondary forest.Multivariate g lm analysis was used on the seed rain community data and univariate lm analysis on the most abundant seed captured(i.e.,Schima wallichii(DC.)Korth.).After 8 months of seed rain collection,there was a total of 3596 seeds from eight tree species.Seeds were more abundant and more diverse in the secondary forest(74.9%,8 species)compared to the reforested field(24.1%,2 species).There was a limitation on seed dispersal in reforested field from the adjacent forest.The abundance of S.wallichii seeds determined by the dominance of adult trees(136 trees/ha in the forest and 115 trees/ha in the reforested field).Our study suggests,that after 7 years of planting,the reforested field has received limited seed rain and has not yet recovered.

Forested Farmlands:Forest Management by Agroforestry Symbiosis in A Land Management Framework in South and South East Asia

Forests provide multiple benefits as a safety net to the poor and also help to increase the overall ecological balance.Of particular importance in this respect this research has been conducted in six typical villages in South and Southeast Asia,located in Northern Bangladesh,Southern Myanmar and Northwest Thailand.Data collection methods were used by means of observation,FGD,interviews,and a structured survey of farm households.Data were analyzed through qualitative methods

Short-term effects of fire disturbance on CH4 emission from forested wetlands in the Xiaoxing’an Mountains, Northeast China

Using static chamber gas chromatography, we determined the seasonal dynamics, controlling factors, and distribution patterns of forest swamp CH4 levels and related environmental factors (temperature, water level) after fire disturbance in the Xiaoxing’an Mountains. The results showed the following: during the growing season, the annual CH4 emission distribution ranged from - 0.001 ± 0.012 to 22.373 ± 3.650 mg m^-2 h^-1;mild fire caused the swamp CH4 emission flux of tussock, shrub, Alnus sibirica and birch swamp to increase by 56.0–524.7%;at low water levels, temperature had a significant influence on the swamp type, and the correlation between the methane emission flux and temperature was significantly strengthened;after a fire disturbance, methane emissions from all types of marsh were highest in summer and second highest in autumn, with a weak absorption in spring;and along the water environment gradient of the transition zone, the CH4 emission flux presented a decreasing trend in its spatial distribution pattern.

Wild bee distribution near forested landscapes is dependent on successional state

Background:Forested landscapes are valuable sources of ecosystem services especially in areas dedicated to intense agricultural activities.Distance from forest margin is known to influence the wild bee community in the landscape surrounding forested patches.Yet little is known regarding how bee communities distribute themselves in landscapes that exhibit different forest successional states.Methods:We examined how land use type and distance from the forest edge affect the abundance and richness of the wild bee community across four forest successional states.Bees were collected in sites representing four stages of forest succession and analyzed using generalized linear mixed models with negative binomial distributions.Results:Wild bee diversity is reduced in forested environments that maintain dense stands of trees and high canopy cover.Additionally,distance from the forest edge was an important factor determining wild bee distribution in successional stages adjacent to forest edges.Furthermore,we found that bees maintain high specificity for distinct successional states and distances.Conclusions:Our results demonstrate how different successional stages can harbor different bee species and highlight the ability of microhabitats to act as reservoirs of bee diversity in and around forest margins.Furthermore,we found that maximizing successional patchiness across forested landscapes increases the amount of available habitat that can support a diverse suite of bees with different nesting biologies and behaviors.

Comparison of Discharge Duration Curves from Two Adjacent Forested Catchments—Effect of Forest Age and Dominant Tree Species

The effects of forest age and dominant tree species on the water discharge volume have been analyzed by a paired-watershed experiment in two adjacent catchments in Tatsunokuchi-yama Experimental Forest, western Japan. The control period is 1937-1943. The treated periods are 1948-1953, 1968-1977, and 1996-2003. In these treated periods, the forest age or the dominant tree species were different between two adjacent periods. Differences in the discharge duration curves from the two catchments are compared for the control and the treated periods. A significant change in the discharge duration curves is seen in the third treated period (1996-2003) on days with low water, when the forest age difference between the adjacent catchments was 35 years. This is believed to be the result of differences in forest age and forest treatment just after the occurrence of pine wilt disease.

Spatial Distribution of Surface Soil Moisture in a Small Forested Catchment

Predicting the spatial distribution of soil moisture is an important hydrological question. We measured the spatial distribution of surface soil moisture (upper 6 cm) using an Amplitude Domain Reflectometry sensor at the plot scale (2 × 2 m) and small catchment scale (0.84 ha) in a temperate forest. The spatial variation of soil water content was higher during dry conditions than that during wet conditions. Results indicated 3.1 samples at the plot scale were sufficient to estimate mean soil water content when the precision was 0.1. Soil water content increased with increasing topographic index (TI) and soil-topographic index (STI) at the small catchment scale. The correlation between soil water content and TI was higher than that between soil water content and STI. This suggests that topography is more important for estimating surface soil moisture than soil depth as formation of surface soil moisture occurs at ≤6 cm.

Restoration of Forested Lands under Bauxite Mining with Emphasis on Guyana during the First Two Decades of the XXI Century: A Review

Mining poses a major environmental threat to tropical forest ecosystems, given its role in long-term forest degradation. Like Suriname, Guyana presents one of the less disturbed forested lands in South America. The local economy is improving, thanks to the development of mining which is primarily focused on gold, diamond, and bauxite. This, however, has resulted in long-term degradation of important forest ecosystems and the pollution of water bodies, and these have given rise to increasing concentrations of sediments. Taking into consideration the afore-mentioned, this review synthesizes, for the first time, literature which describes knowledge-based restoration practices in forested fragmented landscapes at different bauxite mining areas. The principal objective of this endeavor is to learn from case studies that have been carried out in the Neotropics especially in South America, with a view to applying best practices to the Guyana context. It has been found that mining presents a serious challenge for physical, chemical, and biological restoration. Comprehensive knowledge of the ecology of the landscape—structure and configuration, soil type, physical, chemical and biological properties, dispersal mode, and the identification and quantification/inventory of plant communities is critically important pinpointed for planning restoration programmes. The process of recovering some of the ecological functions of the pristine forest, through natural regeneration, is vital to supporting biodiversity in overburden dumps and to mitigating environmental impacts. One of these many functions, functional connectivity, can be enhanced to optimize the restoration of forest cover leading to an increase in local biodiversity. Bearing in mind the afore-stated, this review synthesizes passive and active restoration through reforestation with local and exotic species, ecological management of colonization, nucleation practices, and the use of Landscape Ecology models. These have been identified as the most appropriate to follow, given that a spatially driven design can provide much needed knowledge of the restoration/reclamation plan for Bauxite Mine Lands. Ecologically sound designs are a catalyst for devising mechanisms which can (help to) reduce environmental impacts. These designs can also help to boost the velocity at which ecological processes operate, in order to increase the resilience of ecosystems and the connectivity between forest patches and continuous pristine forests.

Tree Species Composition in Tropical Forest Remnants of Highly Deforested Regions: The Case of the Huasteca Potosina Region, Mexico

Deforestation and fragmentation of tropical forest are the most serious threats to biodiversity. In the lowlands of the Huasteca Potosina region, Mexico, more than 95,000 ha of tropical forest have disappeared. This paper analyses tree species composition in tropical forest patches of this highly deforested region, located in northeast of Mexico. At present, only 57 remnants of arboreal vegetation larger than ten hectares still remain standing, which cover 6117 ha. These decreasing fragments host 140 floristic species, representing 42 families and 85 genera. Compared with previous inventories, these data show a sharp drop in species composition. Most of the forest remnants contain less than 50% of the floristic diversity recorded by previous surveys, particularly in the medium subperennial tropical forest.

Perceptions of Bark Beetle Landscape Disturbance Effects on Natural Resources and Drinking Water: Assessing Communication and Knowledge Exchange in the Rocky Mountain Region, USA

Widespread changes to forested watersheds affected by the mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae Hopkins) epidemic across western North America raised concerns about the effects of this climate-induced disturbance on drinking water and natural resources. Effective communication and knowledge exchange across scientists and stakeholders (i.e., drinking water managers) is essential for constructively responding to such landscape scale disturbances, providing improved adaptive capacity through knowledge sharing. An assessment of stakeholder knowledge levels, information needs, primary concerns, and suggested communication strategies were conducted via an online elicitation survey and World Science Café workshops. Knowledge levels, assessed via a survey of local water managers and experts, were relatively low with approximately half of the respondents reporting little to no knowledge of the effects of mountain pine beetle on drinking water quality and quantity, thereby indicating limited knowledge exchange between scientists and drinking water stakeholders. Increased accessibility and dissemination of research findings pertinent to the mountain pine beetle epidemic’s effects on drinking water quality and quantity is necessary for natural resource management. Recommendations for improved communication among scientists and drinking water stakeholders in particular and forest health in general include dispersal of non-academic research summaries, information exchange through existing media and community resources, demonstration projects, and information clearinghouses. This information provides a better understanding of the challenges, concerns, and first-hand experience of stakeholders of a landscape disturbance issue to apply this knowledge to enhance land management practice and how researchers on this overall project enhanced science communication efforts.

Evolutionary fingerprint, phylogenetic and forest structure of tropical montane Atlantic cloud forests along an elevation gradient

Environmental conditions can change markedly over geographical distances along elevation gradients,making them natural laboratories to study the processes that structure communities.This work aimed to assess the influences of elevation on Tropical Montane Cloud Forest plant communities in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest,a historically neglected ecoregion.We evaluated the phylogenetic structure,forest structure(tree basal area and tree density)and species richness along an elevation gradient,as well as the evolutionary fingerprints of elevation-success on phylogenetic lineages from the tree communities.To do so,we assessed nine communities along an elevation gradient from 1210 to 2310 m a.s.l.without large elevation gaps.The relationships between elevation and phylogenetic structure,forest structure and species richness were investigated through Linear Models.The occurrence of evolutionary fingerprint on phylogenetic lineages was investigated by quantifying the extent of phylogenetic signal of elevation-success using a genus-level molecular phylogeny.Our results showed decreased species richness at higher elevations and independence between forest structure,phylogenetic structure and elevation.We also verified that there is a phylogenetic signal associated with elevation-success by lineages.We concluded that the elevation is associated with species richness and the occurrence of phylogenetic lineages in the tree communities evaluated in Mantiqueira Range.On the other hand,elevation is not associated with forest structure or phylogenetic structure.Furthermore,closely related taxa tend to have their higher ecological success in similar elevations.Finally,we highlight the fragility of the tropical montane cloud forests in the Mantiqueira Range in face of environmental changes(i.e.global warming)due to the occurrence of exclusive phylogenetic lineages evolutionarily adapted to environmental conditions(i.e.minimum temperature)associated with each elevation range.