A flow control mechanism in wing flapping with stroke asymmetry during insect forward flight

A theoretical modeling approach as well as an unsteady analytical method is used to study aerodynamic characteristics of wing flapping with asymmetric stroke-cycles in connection with an oblique stroke plane during insect forward flight. It is revealed that the aerodynamic asymmetry between the downstroke and the upstroke due to stroke-asymmetrical flapping is a key to understand the flow physics of generation and modulation of the lift and the thrust. Predicted results for examples of given kinematics validate more specifically some viewpoints that the wing lift is more easily produced when the forward speed is higher and the thrust is harder, and the lift and the thrust are generated mainly during downstroke and upstroke, respectively. The effects of three controlling parameters, i.e. the angles of tilted stroke plane, the different downstroke duration ratios, and the different angles of attack in both down- and up-stroke, are further discussed. It is found that larger oblique angles of stroke planes generate larger thrust but smaller lift; larger downstroke duration ratios lead to larger thrust, while making little change in lift and input aerodynamic power; and again, a small increase of the angle of attack in downstroke or upstroke may cause remarkable changes in aerodynamic performance in the relevant stroke.

Aerodynamic Effects of Corrugation in Flapping Insect Wings in Forward Flight

We have examined the aerodynamic effects of corrugation in model wings that closely mimic the wing movements of a forward flight bumblebee using the method of computational fluid dynamics. Various corrugated wing models were tested （care was taken to ensure that the corrugation introduced zero camber）. Advance ratio ranging from 0 to 0.57 was considered. The results shown that at all flight speeds considered, the time courses of aerodynamic force of the corrugated wing are very close to those of the flat-plate wing. The cornlgation decreases aerodynamic force slightly. The changes in the mean location of center of pressure in the spanwise and chordwise directions resulting from the corrugation are no more than 3% of the wing chord length. The possible reason for the small aerodynamic effects of wing corrugation is that the wing operates at a large angle of attack and the flow is separated： the large angle of incidence dominates the corrugation in determining the flow around the wing, and for separated flow, the flow is much less sensitive to wing shape variation.

Forward flight of a model butterfly: Simulation by equations of motion coupled with the Navier-Stokes equations

The forward flight of a model butterfly was stud- ied by simulation using the equations of motion coupled with the Navier-Stokes equations. The model butterfly moved under the action of aerodynamic and gravitational forces, where the aerodynamic forces were generated by flapping wings which moved with the body, allowing the body os- cillations of the model butterfly to be simulated. The main results are as follows： （1） The aerodynamic force produced by the wings is approximately perpendicular to the long-axis of body and is much larger in the downstroke than in the up- stroke. In the downstroke the body pitch angle is small and the large aerodynamic force points up and slightly backward, giving the weight-supporting vertical force and a small neg- ative horizontal force, whilst in the upstroke, the body an- gle is large and the relatively small aerodynamic force points forward and slightly downward, giving a positive horizon- tal force which overcomes the body drag and the negative horizontal force generated in the downstroke. （2） Pitching oscillation of the butterfly body plays an equivalent role of the wing-rotation of many other insects. （3） The body-mass- specific power of the model butterfly is 33.3 W/kg, not very different from that of many other insects, e.g., fruitflies and dragonflies.

Unsteady aerodynamic forces and power requirements of a bumblebee in forward flight

Aerodynamic forces and power requirements in forward flight in a bumblebee （Bombus terrestris） were studied using the method of computational fluid dynamics. Actual wing kinematic data of free flight were used in the study （the speed ranges from 0 m/s to 4.5 m/s; advance ratio ranges from 0-0.66）. The bumblebee employs the delayed stall mechanism and the fast pitching-up rotation mechanism to produce vertical force and thrust. The leading-edge vortex does not shed in the translatory phase of the half-strokes and is much more concentrated than that of the fruit fly in a previous study. At hovering and low-speed flight, the vertical force is produced by both the half-strokes and is contributed by wing lift; at medium and high speeds, the vertical force is mainly produced during the downstroke and is contributed by both wing lift and wing drag. At all speeds the thrust is mainly produced in the upstroke and is contributed by wing drag. The power requirement at low to medium speeds is not very different from that of hovering and is relatively large at the highest speed （advance ratio 0.66）, i.e. the power curve is Jshaped. Except at the highest flight speed, storing energy elastically can save power up to 20%-30%. At the highest speed, because of the large increase of aerodynamic torque and the slight decrease of inertial torque （due to the smaller stroke amplitude and stroke frequency used）, the power requirement is dominated by aerodynamic power and the effect of elastic storage of energy on power requirement is limited.

Dynamic flight stability of a bumblebee in forward flight

The longitudinal dynamic flight stability of a bumblebee in forward flight is studied. The method of computational fluid dynamics is used to compute the aerodynamic derivatives and the techniques of eigenvalue and eigenvector analysis are employed for solving the equations of motion. The primary findings are as the following. The forward flight of the bumblebee is not dynamically stable due to the existence of one （or two） unstable or approximately neutrally stable natural modes of motion. At hovering to medium flight speed [flight speed Ue = （0-3.5）m s^-1; advance ratio J = 0-0.44], the flight is weakly unstable or approximately neutrally stable; at high speed （Ue = 4.5 m s^-1; J = 0.57）, the flight becomes strongly unstable （initial disturbance double its value in only 3.5 wingbeats）.

Stabilization control of a bumblebee in hovering and forward flight

Our previous study shows that the hovering and forward flight of a bumblebee do not have inherent stability （passive stability）. But the bumblebees are observed to fly stably. Stabilization control must have been applied. In this study, we investigate the longitudinal stabilization control of the bumblebee. The method of computational fluid dynamics is used to compute the control derivatives and the techniques of eigenvalue and eigenvector analysis and modal decomposition are used for solving the equations of motion. Controllability analysis shows that at all flight speeds considered, although inherently unstable, the flight is controllable. By feedbacking the state variables, i.e. vertical and horizontal velocities, pitching rate and pitch angle （which can be measured by the sensory system of the insect）, to produce changes in stroke angle and angle of attack of the wings, the flight can be stabilized, explaining why the bumblebees can fly stably even if they are passively unstable.

Aerodynamic Interactions Between Wing and Body of a Model Insect in Forward Flight and Maneuvers

The aerodynamic interactions between the body and the wings of a model insect in forward flight and maneuvers are studied using the method of numerically solving the Navier-Stokes equations over moving overset grids. Three cases are con- sidered, including a complete insect, wing pair only and body only. By comparing the results of these cases, the interaction effect between the body and the wing pair can be identified. The changes in the force and moment coefficients of the wing pair due to the presence of the body are less than 4.5% of the mean vertical force coefficient of the model insect; the changes in the aero- dynamic force coefficients of the body due to the presence of the wings are less than 5.0% of the mean vertical force coefficient of the model insect. The results of this paper indicate that in studying the aerodynamics and flight dynamics of a flapping insect in forward flight or maneuver, separately computing （or measuring） the aerodynamic forces and moments on the wing paig and on the body could be a good approximation.

Wing Kinematics, Aerodynamic Forces and Vortex-wake Structures in Fruit-flies in Forward Flight

Wing kinematics in forward-flying fruit-flies was measured using high-speed cameras and flows of the flapping wing were calculated numerically. The large lift and thrust coefficients produced by the wing were explained. The wing flaps along a forward-tilting stroke plane. In the starting portion of a half-stroke （an upstroke or downstroke）, the wing pitches down to a small pitch angle; during the mid portion （the wing has built up its speed）, it first fast pitches up to a large pitch angle and then maintains the pitch angle; in the ending portion, the wing pitches up further. A large aerodynamic force （normal to the wing surface） is produced during the mid portion of a half-stroke. The large force is produced by the fast-pitching-up rotation and delayed-stall mechanisms. As a result of the orientation of wing, the thrust that propels the insect is produced by the upstroke and the major part of the vertical force that supports the weight is produced by the downstroke. In producing the thrust the upstroke leaves a ＂vortex ring＂ that is almost vertical, and in producing the vertical force the downstroke leaves a ＂vortex ring＂ that is almost horizontal.

How Could Beetle＇s Elytra Support Their Own Weight during Forward Flight？

The aerodynamic role of the elytra during a beetle＇s flapping motion is not well-elucidated, although it is well-recognized that the evolution of elytra has been a key in the success of coleopteran insects due to their protective function. An experimental study on wing kinematics reveals that for almost concurrent flapping with the hind wings, the flapping angle of the elytra is 5 times smaller than that of the hind wings. Then, we explore the aerodynamic forces on elytra in free forward flight with and without an effect of elytron-hind wing interaction by three-dimensional numerical simulation. The numerical results show that vertical force generated by the elytra without interaction is not sufficient to support even its own weight. However, the elytron-hind wing interaction improves the vertical force on the elytra up to 80%; thus, the total vertical force could fully support its own weight. The interaction slightly increases the vertical force on the hind wind by 6% as well.

Two- and Three-Dimensional Simulations of Beetle Hind Wing Flapping during Free Forward Flight

Aerodynamic characteristic of the beetle, Trypoxylus dichotornus, which has a pair of elytra （forewings） and hind wings, is numerically investigated. Based on the experimental results of wing kinematics, two-dimensional （2D） and three-dimensional （3D） computational fluid dynamic simulations were carried out to reveal aerodynamic performance of the hind wing. The roles of the spiral Leading Edge Vortex （LEV） and the spanwise flow were clarified by comparing 2D and 3D simulations. Mainly due to pitching down of chord line during downstroke in highly inclined stroke plane, relatively high averaged thrust was produced in the free forward flight of the beetle. The effects of the local corrugation and the camber variation were also investigated for the beetle＇s hind wings. Our results show that the camber variation plays a significant role in improving both lift and thrust in the flapping. On the other hand, the local corrugation pattern has no significant effect on the aerodynamic force due to large angle of attack during flapping.

Aeroelastic stability of wing/pylon/rotor coupled system for tiltrotor aircraft in forward flight

An analytical model for aeroelastic stability of the wing/pylon/rotor coupled system with elastic bending-twist coupling wing for tiltrotor aircraft in forward flight has been established in this paper. The investigation is focused on the effectiveness of the wing elastic bending-twist couplings provided by composite wing beam on the aeroelastic stability for the wing/pylon/rotor coupled system. By introducing the different wing elastic bending-twist couplings into the Boeing’s test model, the aeroelastic stability of the Boeing’s test model with different wing elastic bending-twist couplings has been analyzed. The numerical re-sults indicate that the negative wing beamwise bending-twist elastic coupling (the wing upward beamwise bending engenders the nose-down torsion of the wing section) can saliently enhance the stability of the wing beamwise bending modal. The posi-tive wing chordwise bending-twist elastic coupling (the wing forward chordwise bending engenders the nose-down torsion of the wing section) has a great benefit for increasing the stability of the wing chordwise bending modal.

Aeroelastic stability of full-span tiltrotor aircraft model in forward flight

The existing full-span models of the tiltrotor aircraft adopted the rigid blade model without considering the coupling relationship among the elastic blade, wing and fuselage. To overcome the limitations of the existing full-span models and improve the precision of aeroelastic analysis of tiltrotor aircraft in forward flight, the aeroelastic stability analysis model of full-span tiltrotor aircraft in forward flight has been presented in this paper by considering the coupling among elastic blade, wing, fuselage and various components. The analytical model is validated by comparing with the calculation results and experimental data in the existing references. The influence of some structural parameters, such as the fuselage degrees of freedom, relative displacement between the hub center and the gravity center, and nacelle length, on the system stability is also investigated. The results show that the fuselage degrees of freedom decrease the critical stability velocity of tiltrotor aircraft, and the variation of the structural parameters has great influence on the system stability,and the instability form of system can change between the anti-symmetric and symmetric wing motions of vertical and chordwise bending.

Two-Dimensional Aerodynamic Models of Insect Flight for Robotic Flapping Wing Mechanisms of Maximum Efficiency

In the ＂modified quasi-steady＂ approach, two-dimensional （2D） aerodynamic models of flapping wing motions are analyzed with focus on different types of wing rotation and different positions of rotation axis to explain the force peak at the end of each half stroke. In this model, an additional velocity of the mid chord position due to rotation is superimposed on the translational relative velocity of air with respect to the wing. This modification produces augmented forces around the end of each stroke. For each case of the flapping wing motions with various combination of controlled translational and rotational velocities of the wing along inclined stroke planes with thin figure-of-eight trajectory, discussions focus on lift-drag evolution during one stroke cycle and efficiency of types of wing rotation. This ＂modified quasi-steady＂ approach provides a systematic analysis of various parameters and their effects on efficiency of flapping wing mechanism. Flapping mechanism with delayed rotation around quarter-chord axis is an efficient one and can be made simple by a passive rotation mechanism so that it can be useful for robotic application.

QFT control based on zero phase error compensation for flight simulator

To improve the robustness of high-precision servo systems, quantitative feedback theory （QFT） which aims to achieve a desired robust design over a specified region of plant uncertainty is proposed. The robust design problem can be solved using QFT but it fails to guarantee a high precision tracking. This problem is solved by a robust digital QFT control scheme based on zero phase error （ZPE） feed forward compensation. This scheme consists of two parts： a QFT controller in the closed-loop system and a ZPE feed-forward compensator. Digital QFT controller is designed to overcome the uncertainties in the system. Digital ZPE feed forward controller is used to improve the tracking precision. Simulation and real-time examples for flight simulator servo system indicate that this control scheme can guarantee both high robust performance and high position tracking precision.

考虑阶跃型地面的翼型前飞气动特性影响研究

翼型前飞过程中,地面效应带来的气动力影响难以忽略,尤其在地面结构产生突变时翼型的气动性能必然产生较大变化.通过NACA4412翼型算例,研究了翼型前飞过程中阶跃型地面引起的气动性能影响,分析高度和迎角两种因素与翼型气动性能的相关性.结果表明:在阶跃型地面作用下,翼型前飞在地面效应缺失时会引起翼型升阻比陡降,且与离地高度存在线性关系.离地攻角则与气动性能突变之间存在相反关系,即翼型脱离地面时需维持较大迎角才能减弱气动性能陡变效应,舰载机的起降过程属于典型的阶跃型地面.基于上述结果,为地面效应影响下翼型的气动设计提供参考.

基于非结构嵌套网格的旋翼前飞流场计算

发展了一种基于线性弹簧理论的非结构动态嵌套网格方法,通过求解非定常Eu ler方程模拟了旋翼的前飞流场。根据距离参数快速生成便于计算的两个重叠网格子域,利用运动区子域网格的转动来模拟旋翼的旋转运动,并对其运用线性弹簧动态网格技术来处理旋翼的挥舞和变距运动。发展了一种快速查找插值贡献单元的方法,无需建立Inverse网格,提高了计算效率和精度。使用高效双时间方法分区求解非定常Eu ler方程,两个子域的流场参数在重叠区进行耦合。计算了旋翼的两种前飞状态,所得结果与实验和文献结果都很吻合。

Kirchhoff方法在旋翼前飞噪声预测中的应用研究

将CFD(计算流体力学)技术与噪声预测的Kirchhoff方法相结合,发展了前飞状态下直升机旋翼远场气动噪声的定量预测方法,得到了旋翼噪声的时域解。先用具有解析解的"点源"流动代替旋翼流动,通过比较计算值与理论值,验证了该预测方法的可行性和可靠性;尔后针对AH 1/OLS旋翼模型的两种前飞状态进行计算,通过比较计算值与实验值,进一步验证了本文方法及其所发展的程序的正确性。

聚合多重网格法在旋翼前飞流场计算中的应用

基于非结构动态嵌套网格,将聚合多重网格方法引入到旋翼的前飞流场计算中.从初始的整体非结构网格出发,快速建立相互重叠的两个子域网格,同时无需建立背景网格便可以确定初始洞边界和初始插值贡献单元,且动态嵌套时无需更新洞边界,并采用了一种无需背景网格便可快速查找新的贡献单元的方法.分区利用聚合法生成多重网格,利用双时间方法分区运用三层网格V循环求解非定常Euler方程,两区的流场参数在重叠区实现耦合,对旋翼的前飞流场进行了计算.结果表明,多重网格方法能够有效地加快旋翼前飞流场收敛.

基于非结构运动对接网格的旋翼前飞流场数值模拟

发展了一种基于线性弹簧理论的非结构运动对接网格方法,通过求解非定常Euler方程模拟了旋翼的前飞流场。利用运动区网格的转动模拟旋翼的旋转运动,并运用线性弹簧动态网格技术处理旋翼的挥舞和变距运动,方程求解中采用一种精度较高的插值和重构方法。算例表明,本文的方法能够有效地模拟旋翼的前飞流场。

前飞状态旋翼尾迹测量试验研究

利用PIV技术,测量前飞状态旋翼尾迹的横向速度分布及桨尖涡在横向剖面里的运动轨迹,得到了前飞状态旋翼两侧的尾迹边界及桨尖涡在运动过程中的耗散特性等,研究了风速及拉力系数对前飞状态旋翼尾迹和桨尖涡运动轨迹的影响。结果表明:前飞状态下,旋翼左右两侧尾迹的涡量值基本相当。旋翼尾迹沿径向急剧收缩,沿垂向逐渐下降,下降高度与流向距离几乎呈线性关系。风速、拉力系数的变化对桨尖涡及其运动轨迹有显著的影响。获得的测量结果为开展旋翼流动机理研究及提高CFD分析精度提供了试验依据。