Geophysical Investigation of the Fresh-Saline Water Interface in the Coastal Area of Abergwyngregyn

The importance of the study of saline/fresh water incursion cannot be over-emphasized. Borehole sampling has been extensively used, but it is intrusive, quite expensive and time consuming. Electrical resistivity and electromagnetic techniques have proved successful in groundwater studies since geologic formation properties like porosity and permeability can be correlated with electrical conductivity signatures. Non-intrusive surface geophysical mapping comprising electrical resistivity and electromagnetic methods has been employed to investigate freshwater intrusion and delineate the fresh-saline water interface at the inter-tidal area of Abergwygregyn, North Wales, United Kingdom. Frequency Domain Electromagnetic Profiling and Constant Separation Traversing were used to produce 2-D images and contour plots enabling the identification of freshwater plumes onshore and in the central parts of the study area. Ground truth methods comprised chemical analyses and detailed, point specific information on the stratigraphy. The freshwater intruding from the coastal area appears to be pushing the saline-water further offshore due to the high piezometric head caused by the mountains and hills of Snowdonia adjacent to the study area. The fresh/saline water interface correlates quite well with previous studies carried out in the area. On the basis of the results of the resistivity and conductivity geophysical investigations the freshwater plumes and fresh/saline water interface in the study area were effectively identified and delineated.

Duplex Interpenetrating-Phase FeNiZn and FeNi_(3)Heterostructure with Low-Gibbs Free Energy Interface Coupling for Highly Efficient Overall Water Splitting

The sluggish kinetics of both hydrogen evolution reaction(HER)and oxygen evolution reaction(OER)generate the large overpotential in water electrolysis and thus high-cost hydrogen production.Here,multidimensional nanoporous interpenetrating-phase FeNiZn alloy and FeNi_(3)intermetallic heterostructure is in situ constructed on NiFe foam(FeNiZn/FeNi_(3)@NiFe)by dealloying protocol.Coupling with the eminent synergism among specific constituents and the highly efficient mass transport from integrated porous backbone,FeNiZn/FeNi_(3)@NiFe depicts exceptional bifunctional activities for water splitting with extremely low overpotentials toward OER and HER(η_(1000)=367/245 mV)as well as the robust durability during the 400 h testing in alkaline solution.The as-built water electrolyzer with FeNiZn/FeNi_(3)@NiFe as both anode and cathode exhibits record-high performances for sustainable hydrogen output in terms of much lower cell voltage of 1.759 and 1.919 V to deliver the current density of 500 and 1000 mA cm^(-2)as well long working lives.Density functional theory calculations disclose that the interface interaction between FeNiZn alloy and FeNi_(3)intermetallic generates the modulated electron structure state and optimized intermediate chemisorption,thus diminishing the energy barriers for hydrogen production in water splitting.With the merits of fine performances,scalable fabrication,and low cost,FeNiZn/FeNi_(3)@NiFe holds prospective application potential as the bifunctional electrocatalyst for water splitting.

Interface and M^(3+)/M^(2+)Valence Dual-Engineering on Nickel Cobalt Sulfoselenide/Black Phosphorus Heterostructure for Efficient Water Splitting Electrocatalysis

The catalyst innovation that aims at noble-metal-free substitutes is one key aspect for future sustainable hydrogen energy deployment.In this paper,a nickel cobalt sulfoselenide/black phosphorus heterostructure(NiCoSe|S/BP)was fabricated to realize the highly active and durable water electrolysis through interface and valence dual-engineering.The NiCoSe|S/BP nanostructure was constructed by in-situ growing NiCo hydroxide nanosheet arrays on few-layer BP and subsequently one-step sulfoselenization by SeS2.Besides the conductive merit of BP substrate,holes in p-type BP are capable of oxidizing the Co^(2+)to high-valence and electron-accepting Co^(3+),benefiting the oxygen evolution reaction(OER).Meanwhile,Ni^(3+)/Ni^(2+)ratio in the heterostructure is reduced to maintain the electrical neutrality,which corresponds to the increased electron-donating character for boosting hydrogen evolution reaction(HER).As for HER and OER,the heterostructured NiCoSe|S/BP electrocatalyst exhibits small overpotentials of 172 and 285 mV at 10 mA cm^(-2)(η_(10))in alkaline media,respectively.And overall water splitting has been achieved at a low cell potential of 1.67 V at η_(10) with high stability.Molecular sensing and density functional theory(DFT)calculations are further proposed for understanding the rate-determine steps and enhanced catalytic mechanism.The investigation presents a deep-seated perception for the electrocatalytic performance enhancement of BP-based heterostructure.

Vacancies and interfaces engineering of core-shell heterostuctured NiCoP/NiO as trifunctional electrocatalysts for overall water splitting and zinc-air batteries

The electronic structures and properties of electrocatalysts,which depend on the physicochemical structure and metallic element components,could significantly affect their electrocatalytic performance and their future applications in Zn-air battery(ZAB)and overall water splitting(OWS).Here,by combining vacancies and heterogeneous interfacial engineering,three-dimensional(3D)core-shell NiCoP/NiO heterostructures with dominated oxygen vacancies have been controllably in-situ grown on carbon cloth for using as highly efficient electrocatalysts toward hydrogen and oxygen electrochemical reactions.Theoretical calculation and electrochemical results manifest that the hybridization of NiCoP core with NiO shell produces a strong synergistic electronic coupling effect.The oxygen vacancy can enable the emergence of new electronic states within the band gap,crossing the Fermi levels of the two spin components and optimizing the local electronic structure.Besides,the hierarchical core-shell NiCoP/NiO nanoarrays also endow the catalysts with multiple exposed active sites,faster mass transfer behavior,optimized electronic strutures and improved electrochemical performance during ZAB and OWS applications.

Heterostructured bimetallic phosphide nanowire arrays with latticetorsion interfaces for efficient overall water splitting

Designing cost-effective and high-efficiency electrocatalysts is critical to the water splitting performance during hydrogen generation.Herein,we have developed Fe_(2)P-Co_(2)P heterostructure nanowire arrays with excellent lattice torsions and grain boundaries for highly efficient water splitting.According to the microstructural investigations and theoretical calculations,the lattice torsion interface not only contributes to the exposure of more active sites but also effectively tunes the adsorption energy of hydrogen/oxygen intermediates via the accumulation of charge redistribution.As a result,the Fe_(2)P-Co_(2)P heterostructure nanowire array exhibits exceptional bifunctional catalytic activity with overpotentials of 65 and 198 mV at 10 mA cm^(-2) for hydrogen and oxygen evolution reactions,respectively.Moreover,the Fe_(2)P-Co_(2)P/NF-assembled electrolyzer can deliver 10 mA cm^(-2) at an ultralow voltage of1.51 V while resulting in a high solar-to-hydrogen conversion efficiency of 19.8%in the solar-driven water electrolysis cell.

Recent advances in elaborate interface regulation of BiVO_(4)photoanode for photoelectrochemical water splitting

Bismuth vanadate(BiVO_(4))is an excellent photoanode material for photoelectrochemical(PEC)water splitting system,possessing high theoretical photoelectrocatalytic conversion efficiency.However,the actual PEC activity and stability of BiVO_(4)are faced with great challenges due to factors such as severe charge recombination and slow water oxidation kinetics at the interface.Therefore,various interface regulation strategies have been adopted to optimize the BiVO_(4)photoanode.This review provides an in-depth analysis for the mechanism of interface regulation strategies from the perspective of factors affecting the PEC performance of BiVO_(4)photoanodes.These interface regulation strategies improve the PEC performance of BiVO_(4)photoanode by promoting charge separation and transfer,accelerating interfacial reaction kinetics,and enhancing stability.The research on the interface regulation strategies of BiVO_(4)photoanode is of great significance for promoting the development of PEC water splitting technology.At the same time,it also has inspiration for providing new ideas and methods for designing and preparing efficient and stable catalytic materials.

Influence of CO_2 Doubling on Water Transport Process at Root/Soil Interface of Pinus sylvestris var. sylvestriformis Seedlings

Water transport at the root/soil interface of 1 year old Pinus sylvestris Linn. var. sylvestriformis (Takenouchi) Cheng et C. D. Chu seedlings under CO 2 doubling was studied by measuring soil electric conductance to survey soil water profiles and comparing it with root distribution surveyed by soil coring and root harvesting in Changbai Mountain in 1999. The results were: (1) The profiles of soil water content were adjusted by root activity. The water content of the soil layer with abundant roots was higher. (2) When CO 2 concentration was doubled, water transport was more active at the root/soil interface and the roots were distributed into deeper layer. It was shown in this work that the method of measuring electric conductance is an inexpensive, non_destructive and relatively sensitive way for underground water transport process.

The diffusive fluxes of inorganic nitrogen across the intertidal sediment-water interface of the Changjiang Estuary in China

Ammonium and nitrate concentrations were analyzed in near-bottom water and pore water collected from ten stations of the intertidal flat of the Changjiang Estuary during April, July, November and February. The magnitudes of the benthic exchange fluxes were determined on the basis of concentration gradients of ammonium and nitrate at the near-bottom water and interstitial water interface in combination with calculations of a modified Fick＇ s first law. Ammonium fluxes varied from - 5.05 to 1.43 μg/（ cm^2·d） and were greatly regulated by the production of ammonium in surface sediments, while nitrate fluxes ranged from - 0. 38 to 1.36 μg/ （ cm^2·d） and were dominated by nitrate concentrations in the tidal water. It was found that ammonium was mainly released from sediments into water columns at most of stations whereas nitrate was mostly diffused from overlying waters to intertidal sediments. In total, 823.75 t/a ammonium-N was passed from intertidal sediments to water while about 521.90 t/a nitrate-N was removed from overlying waters to intertidal sediments. This suggests that intertidal sediments had the significant influence on modulating inorganic nitrogen in the tidal water.

Photophysics and electrochemistry relevant to photocatalytic water splitting involved at solid–electrolyte interfaces

Direct photon to chemical energy conversion using semiconductor–electrocatalyst–electrolyte interfaces has been extensively investigated for more than a half century. Many studies have focused on screening materials for efficient photocatalysis. Photocatalytic efficiency has been improved during this period but is not sufficient for industrial commercialization. Detailed elucidation on the photocatalytic water splitting process leads to consecutive six reaction steps with the fundamental parameters involved: The photocatalysis is initiated involving photophysics derived from various semiconductor properties(1: photon absorption, 2: exciton separation). The generated charge carriers need to be transferred to surfaces effectively utilizing the interfaces(3: carrier diffusion, 4: carrier transport). Consequently, electrocatalysis finishes the process by producing products on the surface(5: catalytic efficiency, 6: mass transfer of reactants and products). Successful photocatalytic water splitting requires the enhancement of efficiency at each stage. Most critically, a fundamental understanding of the interfacial phenomena is highly desired for establishing 'photocatalysis by design' concepts, where the kinetic bottleneck within a process is identified by further improving the specific properties of photocatalytic materials as opposed to blind material screening. Theoretical modeling using the identified quantitative parameters can effectively predict the theoretically attainable photon-conversion yields. This article provides an overview of the state-of-the-art theoretical understanding of interfacial problems mainly developed in our laboratory.Photocatalytic water splitting(especially hydrogen evolution on metal surfaces) was selected as a topic,and the photophysical and electrochemical processes that occur at semiconductor–metal, semiconductor–electrolyte and metal–electrolyte interfaces are discussed.

Interface Engineering of NixSy@MnOxHy Nanorods to Efficiently Enhance Overall-Water-Splitting Activity and Stability

Exploring highly active and stable transition metal-based bifunctional electrocatalysts has recently attracted extensive research interests for achieving high inherent activity, abundant exposed active sites, rapid mass transfer, and strong structure stability for overall water splitting. Herein, an interface engineering coupled with shell-protection strategy was applied to construct three-dimensional(3D) core-shell NixSy@MnOxHy heterostructure nanorods grown on nickel foam(NixSy@MnOxHy/NF) as a bifunctional electrocatalyst. NixSy@MnOxHy/NF was synthesized via a facile hydrothermal reaction followed by an electrodeposition process. The X-ray absorption fine structure spectra reveal that abundant Mn-S bonds connect the heterostructure interfaces of N ixSy@MnOxHy, leading to a strong electronic interaction, which improves the intrinsic activities of hydrogen evolution reaction and oxygen evolution reaction(OER). Besides, as an efficient protective shell, the MnOxHy dramatically inhibits the electrochemical corrosion of the electrocatalyst at high current densities, which remarkably enhances the stability at high potentials. Furthermore, the 3D nanorod structure not only exposes enriched active sites, but also accelerates the electrolyte diffusion and bubble desorption. Therefore, NixSy@MnOxHy/NF exhibits exceptional bifunctional activity and stability for overall water splitting, with low overpotentials of 326 and 356 mV for OER at 100 and 500 mA cm^(–2), respectively, along with high stability of 150 h at 100 mA cm^(–2). Furthermore, for overall water splitting, it presents a low cell voltage of 1.529 V at 10 mA cm^(–2), accompanied by excellent stability at 100 mA cm^(–2) for 100 h. This work sheds a light on exploring highly active and stable bifunctional electrocatalysts by the interface engineering coupled with shell-protection strategy.

Interface-strengthened CoP nanosheet array with Co2P nanoparticles as efficient electrocatalysts for overall water splitting

Highly active and durable bifunctional electrocatalysts for hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) and oxygen evolution reaction (OER) play a pivotal role in overall water splitting. Herein, we demonstrate the construction of interface-strengthened CoP nanosheet array with Co2P nanoparticles as such an electrocatalyst through a facile hydrothermal reaction and the subsequent phosphorization process. The twodimensional (2D) nanosheets with thickness of^55 nm expose a great number of active sites. The surface chemical state indicates that the strongly coupled CoP/Co2P electrocatalysts can adsorb or generate more targeted intermediates (e.g. OH- or OOH*) for both HER/OER. As a result, the CoP/Co2P electrocatalysts exhibit small overpotentials of 68 and 256 mV to drive 10 mA cm^-2 for HER and OER, respectively, outperforming most of the recently reported Co-based electrocatalysts. Furthermore, an alkaline electrolyzer assembled by using CoP/Co2P as both cathode and anode can achieve a current density of 10 mA cm^-2 at a low voltage of 1.57 V and work continuously for over 58 h. This work provides a feasible structural design for transition metal phosphides electrocatalysts with efficient and stable overall water splitting.

Electronic modulation and interface engineering of electrospun nanomaterials‐based electrocatalysts toward water splitting

Nowdays,electrocatalytic water splitting has been regarded as one of the most efficient means to approach the urgent energy crisis and environmental issues.However,to speed up the electrocatalytic conversion efficiency of their half reactions including hydrogen evolution reaction(HER)and oxygen evolution reaction(OER),electrocatalysts are usually essential to reduce their kinetic energy barriers.Electrospun nanomaterials possess a unique one‐dimensional structure for outstanding electron and mass transportation,large specific surface area,and the possibilities of flexibility with the porous feature,which are good candidates as efficient electrocatalysts for water splitting.In this review,we focus on the recent research progress on the electrospun nanomaterials‐based electrocatalysts for HER,OER,and overall water splitting reaction.Specifically,the insights of the influence of the electronic modulation and interface engineering of these electrocatalysts on their electrocatalytic activities will be deeply discussed and highlighted.Furthermore,the challenges and development opportunities of the electrospun nanomaterials‐based electrocatalysts for water splitting are featured.Based on the achievements of the significantly enhanced performance from the electronic modulation and interface engineering of these electrocatalysts,full utilization of these materials for practical energy conversion is anticipated.

Plasmonic Field Enhancement for Vibration Spectroscopy at Metal/Water Interfaces

Electrochemical （EC） reactions play vital roles in many disciplines, and its molecular-level understanding is highly desired, in particular under reactions. The vibration spectroscopy is a powerful in situ technique for chemical analysis, yet its application to EC reactions is hindered by the strong attenuation of infrared （IR） light in both electrodes and electrolytes. Here we demonstrate that by incorporating appropriate sub-wavelength plasmonic structures at the metal electrode, the IR field at the EC interface can be greatly enhanced via the excitation of surface plasmon. This scheme facilitates in situ vibrational spectroscopic studies, especially using the surface-specific sum-frequency generation technique.

Mechanism study of reduction of CO_2 into formic acid by in-situ hydrogen produced from water splitting with Zn: Zn/ZnO interface autocatalytic role

We have previously developed a new process of highly efficient conversion of COand water into formic acid with metallic Zn without the addition of catalyst, however, its mechanism is not clear, particularly in the catalytic role of Zn/ZnO interface. Herein, the autocatalytic role of Zn/ZnO interface formed in situ during the reduction of COinto formic acid with Zn in water was studied by combining high resolution transmission electron microscopy（HRTEM）, X-ray diffraction（XRD） and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy（XPS） techniques and experimental data. The electron microscope results show that possible defects or dislocations formed on Zn/ZnO interface, in which plays a key role for Zn H-formation. Further XPS analyses indicate that oxygen vacancies on Zn/ZnO interface increased at short reaction times（less than 10 min）. These analyses and experimental results suggest that a highly efficient and rapid conversion of COand water into formic acid should involve an autocatalytic role of the Zn/ZnO interface formed in situ, particularly at the beginning of the reaction.

Orientation and Motion of Water Molecules at Air/Water Interface

Here we report a quantitative study of the orientational structure and motion of water molecule at the air/water interface. Analysis of Sum Frequency Generation （SFG） vibrational peak of the free O-H stretching band at 3700 cm^-1 in four experimental configurations showed that orientational motion of water molecule at air/water interface is libratory within a limited angular range. The free OH bond of the interracial water molecule is tilted around 33°from the interface normal and the orientational distribution or motion width is less than 15°. This picture is significantly different from the previous conclusion that the interracial water molecule orientation varies over a broad range within the ultrafast vibrational relaxation time, the only direct experimental study concluded for ultrafast and broad orient, ational motion of a liquid interface by Wei et al. （Phys. Rev. Lett. 86, 4799, （2001）） using single SFG experimental configuration.

Nonlinear Behavior and Domain Feature at Oil/Water Interface

Studies on nonlinear behavior at oil/water interface membrane were performed. This system showed rhythmic oscillations and chaos of electrical potential in a given concentration domain. The nonlinear behavior response at the liquid membrane apparently resembled that of biological chemoreceptive membrane. The possibility of developing a new type of chemical sensor with the ability to simulate substance equilibrium in living organisms was suggested in the paper.

Abundant heterointerfaces in MOF-derived hollow CoS_(2)-MoS_(2) nanosheet array electrocatalysts for overall water splitting

Rational coupling of hydrogen evolution reaction(HER) and oxygen evolution reaction(OER) catalysts is extremely important for practical overall water splitting,but it is still challenging to construct such bifunctional heterostructures.Herein,we present a metal-organic framework(MOF)-etching strategy to design free-standing and hierarchical hollow CoS_(2)-MoS_(2) heteronanosheet arrays for both HER and OER.Resulting from the controllable etching of MOF by MoO_(4)^(2-) and in-situ sulfuration,the obtained CoS_(2)-MoS_(2) possesses abundant heterointerfaces with modulated local charge distribution,which promote water dissociation and rapid electrocatalytic kinetics.Moreover,the two-dimensional hollow array architecture can not only afford rich surface-active sites,but also facilitate the penetration of electrolytes and the release of evolved H_(2)/O_(2) bubbles.Consequently,the engineered CoS_(2)-MoS_(2) heterostructure exhibits small overpotentials of 82 mV for HER and 266 mV for OER at 10 mA cm^(-2).The corresponding alkaline electrolyzer affords a cell voltage of 1.56 V at 10 mA cm^(-2) to boost overall water splitting,along with robust durability over 24 h, even surpassing the benchmark electrode couple composed of IrO_(2) and Pt/C The present work may provide valuable insights for developing MOF-derived heterogeneous electrocatalysts with tailored interface/surface structure for widespread application in catalysis and other energyrelated areas.

Prediction of curved oil–water interface in horizontal pipes using modified model with dynamic contact angle

In this study,interface shapes of horizontal oil–water two-phase flow are predicted by using Young-Laplace equation model and minimum energy model.Meanwhile,the interface shapes of horizontal oil–water twophase flow in a 20 mm inner diameter pipe are measured by a novel conductance parallel-wire array probe(CPAP).It is found that,for flow conditions with low water holdup,there is a large deviation between the model-predicted interface shape and the experimentally measured one.Since the variation of pipe wetting characteristics in the process of fluid flow can lead to the changes of the contact angle between the fluid and the pipe wall,the models mentioned above are modified by considering dynamic contact angle.The results indicate that the interface shapes predicted by the modified models present a good consistence with the ones measured by CPAP.

Unravelling the essential difference between TiO_(x) and AlO_(x) interface layers on Ta_(3)N_(5) photoanode for photoelectrochemical water oxidation

Tantalum nitride(Ta_(3)N_(5))is a very promising photoanode material due to its narrow band gap(2.1 eV)and suitable band alignment for solar water splitting.However,it suffers from severe photocorrosion during water oxidation.In this work,it was found that surface passivation by AlO_(x) and TiO_(x) layers results in dramatically different PEC performance of Ta_(3)N_(5) photoanode for water oxidation.The mechanism study indicates that the negative charges on AlO_(x) can generate additional field to promote separation of photogenerated charges,while the positive charges on TiO_(x) layer show the opposite effect.As a result,the Ta_(3)N_(5) based photoanode modified with AlO_(x) layer gives a high photocurrent of 12.5 mA cm^(-2) for 24 h at 1.23 V versus the reversible hydrogen electrode(RHE).Dynamic analysis implies that the hole extraction and transfer are significantly improved by the modification with the AlO_(x) layer.This work reveals the importance of the charges on surface passivation layer in interface engineering of photoelectrodes.

Water oxidation sites located at the interface of Pt/SrTiO_(3) for photocatalytic overall water splitting

When a proton reduction cocatalyst is loaded on an n-type semiconductor for photocatalytic overall water splitting(POWS),the location of water oxidation sites is generally considered at the surface of the semiconductor due to upward band-bending of n-type semiconductor which may ease the transfer of the photogenerated holes to the surface.However,this is not the case for Pt/SrTiO_(3),a model semiconductor based photocatalyst for POWS.It was found that the photogenerated holes are more readily accumulated at the interface between Pt cocatalyst and SrTiO_(3) photocatalyst as probed by photo-oxidative deposition of PbO_(2),indicating that the water oxidation sites are located at the interface between Pt and SrTiO_(3).Electron paramagnetic resonance and scanning transmission electron microscope studies suggest that the interfacial oxygen atoms between Pt and SrTiO_(3) in Pt/SrTiO_(3) after POWS are more readily lost to form oxygen vacancies upon vacuum heat treatment,regardless of Pt loading by photodeposition or impregnation methods,which may serve as additional support for the location of the active sites for water oxidation at the interface.Density functional theory calculations also suggest that the oxygen evolution reaction more readily occurs at the interfacial sites with the lowest overpotential.These experimental and theoretical studies reveal that the more active sites for water oxidation are located at the interface between Pt and SrTiO_(3),rather than on the surface of SrTiO_(3).Hence,the tailor design and control of the interfacial properties are extremely important for the achievement or improvement of the POWS on cocatalyst loaded semiconductor photocatalyst.