Review: Progress and Trends in Ultrasonic Vibration Assisted Friction Stir Welding

This paper aims to reviewthe state-of-the-art of ultrasonic vibration assisted friction stir welding(UVAFSW) process. Particular attention has been paid on the modes of ultrasonic exertion,experimental results and effects of ultrasonic vibrations on process effectiveness and joint quality. The trends of various aspects with and without ultrasonic vibrations in FSW process are studied and presented. The influence of ultrasonic vibrations on welding loads, temperature history, weld morphology, material flow, weld microstructure and mechanical properties are revisited. Ultrasonic assisted FSW offers numerous advantages over the conventional FSW process. The superimposing of high-frequency vibrations improves various phenomena of the process and the physical,metallurgical,mechanical and tribological properties of the welded joint. The ultrasonic assisted FSW process has a potential to benefit the industry sector. A checklist listing the materials and process parameters used in the documented studies has been presented for quick reference.

A Study on Friction Stir Welding of 12mm Thick Aluminum Alloy Plates

Most of the investigations regarding friction stir welding(FSW)of aluminum alloy plates have been limited to about 5 to 6mm thick plates.In prior work conducted the various aspects concerning the process parameters and the FSW tool geometry were studied utilizing friction stir welding of 12 mm thick commercial grade aluminum alloy.Two different simple-tomanufacture tool geometries were used.The effect of varying welding parameters and dwell time of FSW tool on mechanical properties and weld quality was examined.It was observed that in order to achieve a defect free welding on such thick aluminum alloy plates,tool having trapezoidal pin geometry was suitable.Adequate tensile strength and ductility can be achieved utilizing a combination of high tool rotational speed of about 2000 r/min and low speed of welding around 28 mm/min.At very low and high dwell time the ductility of welded joints are reduced significantly.

Influence of welding parameters on material flow,mechanical property and intermetallic characterization of friction stir welded AA6063 to HCP copper dissimilar butt joint without offset

Joining of dissimilar aluminium-copper is an emerging area of interest for both research and industry due to its complex nature.Friction stir welding was attempted to evaluate the joint strength without offset at the butt line between AA6063 to HCP copper sheet under different combination of rotational speed of 800 and 1000 r/min and travel speed of 20 and 40 mm/min.Material flow was studied in detail for different combinations of parameters with optical microscopy and elemental mapping by energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy（EDS）.The results were correlated with the microstructural characteristics and formation of intermetallics at the bond interface using microhardness test and X-ray diffraction（XRD） technique.Material flow clearly suggests that energy input at 800 r/min and 20 mm/min is sufficient to plasticize both the materials with formation of higher amount of thermodynamically stable and hard intermetallic phases Al4Cu9 and Al Cu4（slower cooling rate of 88 K/s） than that at 800 r/min and 40 mm/min（faster cooling rate of 154 K/s）,attributed maximum joint strength（~78.6% of aluminium base metal）.

Optimum traveling and rotation speeds in friction stir welding for dissimilar Al alloys

Aluminum alloys are subjected to large deformation and decreased strength due to the high expansion modulus caused by heat effects during friction stir welding （FSW）.The optimum conditions for friction stir welding of 5052-O and 6061-T6 Al alloys were determined.The optimum traveling and rotation speeds were identified to be 61mm/min and 1600r/min using various mechanical characteristic evaluation methods.

Review on friction stir welding of dissimilar magnesium and aluminum alloys: Scientometric analysis and strategies for achieving high-quality joints

Magnesium and aluminum alloys continually attract interest as lightweight structural materials for transport applications. However, joining these dissimilar alloys is very challenging. The main obstacle that hinders progress in dissimilar Mg-Al joining is the formation of brittle intermetallic compounds(IMCs). As a solid-state joining technique, FSW is an excellent candidate to attenuate the deleterious IMC effects in dissimilar Al-Mg joining due to the inherent low heat inputs involved in the process. However, the IMCs, namely Al_(3)Mg_(2) and Al_(12)Mg_(17) phases, have also been reported to form during Al-Mg dissimilar FSW;their amount and thickness depend on the heat input involved;thus,the weld parameters used. Since the heat dissipated in the material during the welding process significantly affects the amount of IMCs,the heat input during FSW should be kept as low as possible to control and reduce the amount of IMCs. This review aims to critically discuss and evaluate the studies conducted in the dissimilar Al/Mg FSW through a scientometric analysis and also with a focus on the strategies recently applied to enhance joint quality. The scientometric analysis showed that the main research directions in Mg/Al FSW are the technological weldability of aluminum and magnesium during FSW, structural morphology, and mechanical properties of dissimilar welded joints. Considering the scope of application of the aforementioned joints, the low share of articles dealing with environmental degradation and operational cracking is surprising. This might be attributed to the need for well-developed strategies for obtaining high-quality and sustainable joints for applications. Thus, the second part of this review is conventional, focusing mainly on the new strategies for obtaining high-quality Mg/Al joints. It can be concluded that in addition to the necessity to optimum welding parameters to suppress the excessive heat to limit the amount and thickness of IMC formed and improve the overall joint quality, strategies such as using Zn interlayer, electric current assisted FSW(EAFSW), ultrasonic vibration FSW(UVa FSW), are considered effective in the elimination, reduction, and fragmentation of the brittle IMCs.

Experimental Investigations of Axial Force Monitoring and Control for Friction Stir Welding Process

Friction stir welding( FSW) is a solid-state welding process that utilizes a rotating tool to induce gross material plastic deformation and join two parts together. A large number of studies have indicated that axial force control can be used to achieve good welding quality. However,in the welding process,due to workpiece's geometry error,improper clamping and other process variations,the axial force can vary significantly and produce welding defects.The control of force in the process of FSW is investigated. At first,the development and evaluation of a closed-loop control system is described,which is equipped with a custom real-time wireless force dynamometer for FSW. Then,an axial force controller is designed based on nonlinear force controllers for FSW. Experimental validations are carried out on an FSW platform. The experimental results demonstrate that the controller maintains the constant axial force and shows desirable dynamic behavior, even when the disturbance is encountered during the welding process.

A bibliometric analysis on friction stir welding

Friction stir welding(FSW),as a growing welding technology,from its genesis in 1991,was attended by many researchers in interdisciplinary fields of science and engineering.The current paper presents a bibliometric analysis of the subject and can be addressed as guidance for the researchers who want to explore this field of welding technology.The research growth of FSW,most productive and influential authors,disciplines,leader journals,countries,and institutions are investigated.The highly influential papers in two historical periods and top keywords are also introduced.This paper summarizes the growth structure of FSW during the last 26 years and provides concise bibliometry.

Tool-workpiece interaction and shear layer flow during friction stir welding of aluminium alloys

Material flow phenomena during friction stir welding(FSW) and the forming mechanism of "onion rings" are complicated and currently not fully understood. In the present FSW study aluminium alloys 5083 and A356,with the latter more readily welded than the former,were used. The experiments were conducted to obtain samples of tool and workpiece "frozen" together during FSW for analysis. Two deposition modes for forming the weld nugget zone were observed,one for each alloy with the present FSW parameters. The first is the deposition of shear layers forming the "onion rings" in 5083 alloy nugget. The tool-workpiece interaction leading to the layer thickness being equal to the ratio of welding speed and tool rotation speed is suggested. The second mode is the combination of depositing the rotational shear material in the lower part on the advancing side and the drag flow of material from the retreating site forming the rest of the A356 nugget. The latter mode resulted in the absence of a clear ring structure.

Numerical analysis of reverse dual-rotation friction stir welding process

A three-dimensional model of reverse dual-rotation friction stir welding （RDR-FSW） is developed to conduct the numerical simulation of heat generation and material flow during the process. The reverse rotation of the assisted shoulder and the tool pin is considered to model the heat generation rate. The predicted temperature difference between the advancing side and the retreating side in RDR-FSW is less than that in conventional FSW. There are two reverse flows during the RDR-FSW which is beneficial to the uniformity of the temperature profile. Due to the reverse rotation effects of the assisted shoulder, the predicted shape and size of thermal-mechanically affected zone （TMAZ） based on the iso-viscosity line are decreased greatly compared to the conventional FSW. It lays solid foundation for optimizing the process parameters in RDR-FSW.

STUDY ON THE TEXTURE OF A FRICTION STIR WELDED Mg-Al-Ca ALLOY

Macro-texture of an Mg-Al-Ca alloy prepared by friction stir welding （FSW） was investigated through pole figure measurement and X-ray diffraction （XRD） pattern analysis. It was found that at the top and bottom surfaces of friction stir zone （FSZ）, （0002） basal planes of magnesium tend to be arranged parallel to the plate surface. In the cross section of FSZ, no obvious texture had evolved and （0002） basal planes showed a random distribution.

High-cycle fatigue behavior of friction stir butt welded 6061 aluminium alloy

Friction stir welding （FSW） of 6061 aluminium alloy butt joint was carried out at each rotation speed of 600, 800, 1000, 1200 r/min for two different travel speeds, 80 and 100 mm/min, at a constant probe depth of 1.85 mm. The calculated energy input based on the FSW parameters studied shows that the ultimate tensile strength （UTS） of the butt joint is obtained within a certain range of energy input of 297 kJ to 354 kJ out of total range of energy input studied from 196 kJ to 405 kJ. The fatigue behaviors of high-strength and low-strength joints performed at different stress ratios, i.e., 0.5, 0.3, 0.1, -0.3, -0.5, indicate that the fatigue behaviors of both the welds are sensitive to the microstructural features, such as stir zone （SZ）, thermo mechanically affected zone （TMAZ） and heat affected zone （HAZ）. The observed fatigue strengths were discussed in terms of the microstructure, crack path behavior and fracture surface.

Effect of Post-weld Heat Treatment on Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Friction Stir Welded SSM7075 Aluminium Alloy

7XXX series aluminium alloys generally present low weldability by fusion welding methods because of the sensitivity to weld solidification cracking, vaporization of strengthening alloys and other defects in the fusion zone. Friction stir welding（FSW） can be deployed successfully with aluminium alloys. We presented the effect of post-weld heat treatment（PWHT） on the microstructure and mechanical properties of SSM7075 joints. Semi solid plates were butt-welded by FSW at a rotation speed of 1110 r/min, welding speeds of 70 and 110 mm/min. Solution treatment, artificial aging, and T6（solution treatment and artificial aging combined） were applied to the welded joints, each with three samples. It was found that the T6 joints at the speed of 70 mm/min yielded the highest tensile strength of 459.23 MPa. This condition best enhanced the mechanical properties of FSW SSM7075 aluminium alloy joints.

Modeling the Effects of Tool Shoulder and Probe Profile Geometries on Friction Stirred Aluminum Welds Using Response Surface Methodology

The present paper discusses the modeling of tool geometry effects on the friction stir aluminum welds using response surface methodology. The friction stir welding tools were designed with different shoulder and tool probe geometries based on a design matrix. The matrix for the tool designing was made for three types of tools, based on three types of probes, with three levels each for defining the shoulder surface type and probe profile geometries. Then, the effects of tool shoulder and probe geometries on friction stirred aluminum welds were experimentally investigated with respect to weld strength, weld cross section area, grain size of weld and grain size of thermo-mechanically affected zone. These effects were modeled using multiple and response surface regression analysis. The response surface regression modeling were found to be appropriate for defining the friction stir weldment characteristics.

基于SVR的2195铝锂合金FSW接头疲劳裂纹扩展寿命预测

为了对搅拌摩擦焊(Friction stir welding,FSW)焊接结构进行快速准确的裂纹扩展寿命预测,提出了一种基于支持向量回归(Support vector regression,SVR)的2195铝锂合金FSW接头疲劳裂纹扩展寿命预测方法。首先,通过疲劳裂纹扩展试验和有限元仿真得到Paris裂纹扩展模型常数及裂纹尖端应力强度因子数据集;然后基于SVR模型建立应力强度因子预测模型,并采用粒子群优化(Particle swarm optimization,PSO)算法优化SVR模型的超参数;最后,基于构建的应力强度因子预测模型和Paris模型进行裂纹扩展寿命预测。结果表明:优化后的PSO‑SVR模型能够快速、准确地预测裂纹尖端应力强度因子,在测试集上的决定系数R2可以达到0.9995,高于未优化SVR模型的0.954;该方法裂纹扩展寿命预测结果与有限元仿真结果进行对比,最大误差小于5%,验证了方法的准确性。

冷喷涂对7050铝合金FSW接头耐应力腐蚀性能的影响

采用冷喷涂技术在7050铝合金搅拌摩擦焊(FSW)接头表面进行纯Al涂层的制备,研究冷喷涂对FSW接头耐应力腐蚀性能的改善作用,并对其改善因素进行探索。结果表明,冷喷涂后的FSW接头的耐应力腐蚀性能有明显的提高,应力腐蚀断裂时间从24 h内延长至480 h以上,断裂位置也从前进侧热影响区变为焊核区。纯Al涂层沉积厚度约500μm,孔隙率较低,仅0.74%,均匀分布于接头上表面,无氧化和粉末粒子堆积现象,可在海水腐蚀环境中为接头提供较好的物理防护作用,有效改善接头的应力腐蚀敏感性及腐蚀环境对应力腐蚀的促进作用。冷喷涂层对接头产生压应力,可显著降低接头的残余拉应力,减少内外拉应力的交互作用,延缓应力腐蚀开裂速度。

激冷影响TC4钛合金FSW残余应力与变形的规律

以2mm厚TC4钛合金板材作为研究对象,基于ABAQUS模拟软件对空冷和激冷条件下钛合金搅拌摩擦焊的温度场和失稳变形进行了研究,并对模拟结果进行了实验验证。结果表明:焊接过程中的温度场均为椭圆形分布,在垂直于焊缝方向残余应力均为双峰型分布。与空冷条件相比,激冷可减小焊接过程中温度峰值与高温分布范围;焊件表面拉应力的降低程度远大于焊件底部拉应力的降低程度。当激冷温度与距离分别是-30℃与20 mm时,激冷条件下焊件马鞍形相当于空冷条件下变形量的72.2%。

2219-T6铝合金FSW接头疲劳寿命预测

通过对2219-T6铝合金搅拌摩擦焊对接接头进行金相观察、疲劳试验和显微硬度测量,对接头的不均匀性和疲劳性能进行分析。结果表明,接头最低硬度和疲劳源基本都在热影响区。基于接头各区的显微硬度、微观形貌及微拉伸试验测试,建立接头的弹塑性有限元模型,并在循环加载下模拟接头的应力和应变分布。利用Smith-Watson-Topper损伤公式和性能薄弱区域的应力、应变数据对焊接接头进行疲劳寿命预测,预测结果与试验结果相比,寿命误差基本在两倍因子之内。

2A12铝合金FSW板材时效成形性研究

为评价2A12铝合金搅拌摩擦焊构件时效成形工艺,设计了以时间参数为变量的焊后时效成形工艺模拟试验,进行了FSW(FSW-搅拌摩擦焊)焊件蠕变时效力学性能及成形性研究。结果表明,在搅拌头转速750 r/min、焊速60 mm/s的焊接工艺参数下,当时效成形时间为8 h时,FSW焊接件抗拉强度达到354.1 MPa,为母材强度的79.2%,其断裂位置基本位于热影响区前进侧。在该工艺下最佳回弹时间为8 h,此时回弹率为33.49%。硬度最低点在热影响区,该区域内硬度随时效时间的增加呈递减趋势。

6061铝合金FSW焊缝时效组织与力学性能研究

研究了6061铝合金搅拌摩擦焊接(FSW)焊缝单级时效和二级时效处理后组织与力学性能变化,结果表明:6061铝合金FSW焊缝固溶后自然时效处理,硬度为52HV,抗拉强度200 MPa;6061铝合金FSW焊缝固溶后再经(180℃×6 h)单级峰时效(T6态),硬度为93HV,抗拉强度为320 MPa,伸长率为12%;6061铝合金FSW焊缝经120℃×4 h+180℃×4 h二级峰时效处理后,硬度为112HV,抗拉强度为375 MPa,伸长率为11%。二级峰时效的试样组织中出现了条絮状析出相,并与针状析出相发生缠结,对位错移动产生阻碍,这是铝合金FSW焊缝经二级峰时效后强度和硬度比单级峰时效更高的重要原因。

6005A-T6/6082-T6铝合金FSW与MIG接头组织与性能研究

采用光学显微镜、拉伸试验机、显微硬度计和疲劳试验机对FSW及MIG焊接接头的微观组织及力学性能进行了研究。结果表明:FSW焊核区为细小的等轴晶,热机械影响区呈现为被拉长的畸变晶粒,热影响区的组织明显粗化;MIG接头焊缝区晶粒为明显的铸态组织,热影响区晶粒长大情况也比FSW严重。与MIG相比,搅拌摩擦焊焊接(FSW)接头的抗拉强度相对较高,最小硬度值出现在后进侧的热影响区;高周疲劳(Nf>107)时,FSW的接头疲劳强度高于MIG接头疲劳强度,高出约14%。