Method for evaluation of geological strength index of carbonate cliff rocks:Coupled hyperspectral-digital borehole image technique

The deterioration of unstable rock mass raised interest in evaluating rock mass quality.However,the traditional evaluation method for the geological strength index(GSI)primarily emphasizes the rock structure and characteristics of discontinuities.It ignores the influence of mineral composition and shows a deficiency in assessing the integrity coefficient.In this context,hyperspectral imaging and digital panoramic borehole camera technologies are applied to analyze the mineral content and integrity of rock mass.Based on the carbonate mineral content and fissure area ratio,the strength reduction factor and integrity coefficient are calculated to improve the GSI evaluation method.According to the results of mineral classification and fissure identification,the strength reduction factor and integrity coefficient increase with the depth of rock mass.The rock mass GSI calculated by the improved method is mainly concentrated between 40 and 60,which is close to the calculation results of the traditional method.The GSI error rates obtained by the two methods are mostly less than 10%,indicating the rationality of the hyperspectral-digital borehole image coupled evaluation method.Moreover,the sensitivity of the fissure area ratio(Sr)to GSI is greater than that of the strength reduction factor(a),which means the proposed GSI is suitable for rocks with significant fissure development.The improved method reduces the influence of subjective factors and provides a reliable index for the deterioration evaluation of rock mass.

Determination of geological strength index of jointed rock mass based on image processing

The geological strength index(GSI) system,widely used for the design and practice of mining process,is a unique rock mass classification system related to the rock mass strength and deformation parameters based on the generalized Hoek-Brown and Mohr-Coulomb failure criteria.The GSI can be estimated using standard chart and field observations of rock mass blockiness and discontinuity surface conditions.The GSI value gives a numerical representation of the overall geotechnical quality of the rock mass.In this study,we propose a method to determine the GSI quantitatively using photographic images of in situ jointed rock mass with image processing technology,fractal theory and artificial neural network(ANN).We employ the GSI system to characterize the jointed rock mass around the working in a coal mine.The relative error between the proposed value and the given value in the GSI chart is less than 3.6%.

Estimating the properties of weathered bedrock and pile-rock interaction from the geological strength index

The effect of variable rock mass properties on pile-rock interaction poses a great challenge to the design of stabilizing piles and numerical analysis of pile-rock interaction. The paper presents a novel method to estimate the properties of weathered bedrock, which can be applied to routine design of landslide-stabilizing piles for collivial landslides. The Ercengyan landslide located in the Three Gorges Reservoir, China, is the area of interest for this study. A geological investigation and triaxial tests were conducted to estimate the basic parameters, including Geological Strength Index(GSI), uniaxial compressive strength σ_(ci) and Hoek-Brown constant m_i of intact bedrock in the study area. Hoek-Brown criterion was used to estimate mechanical properties of the weathered rock, including elastic modulus E_m, cohesion c, friction angle Φ, and normal ultimate lateral resistance p_(max). A parametric study was performed to evaluate the effect of parameterizations of GSI, σ_(ci) and m_i on the bedrock properties and p-y curves. The estimated rock mass properties were used with PLAXIS 2D software to simulate pile-rock interaction. Effect of GSI on stress at the pile-rock interface and in the rock, pile bending moment, pile shear force, and p-y curve were analysed.

Strength of massive to moderately jointed hard rock masses

The Hoek-Brown (HB) failure criterion and the geological strength index (GSI) were developed for the estimation of rock mass strength in jointed and blocky ground where rock mass failure is dominated by sliding along open joints and rotation of rock blocks. In massive, veined and moderately jointed rock in which rock blocks cannot form without failure of intact rock, the approach to obtain HB parameters must be modified. Typical situations when these modifications are required include the design of pillars, excavation and cavern stability, strainburst potential assessment, and tunnel support in deep underground conditions (around σ1/σci > 0.15, where σ1 is the major principal compressive stress and σci is the unconfined compressive strength of the homogeneous rock) in hard brittle rocks with GSI ≥ 65. In this article, the strength of massive to moderately jointed hard rock masses is investigated, and an approach is presented to estimate the rock mass strength envelope using laboratory data from uniaxial and triaxial compressive strength tests without reliance on the HB-GSI equations. The data from tests on specimens obtained from massive to moderately jointed heterogeneous (veined) rock masses are used to obtain the rock and rock mass strengths at confining stress ranges that are relevant for deep tunnelling and mining;and a methodology is presented for this purpose from laboratory data alone. By directly obtaining the equivalent HB rock mass strength envelope for massive to moderately jointed rock from laboratory tests, the HB-GSI rock mass strength estimation approach is complemented for conditions where the GSIequations are not applicable. Guidance is also provided on how to apply the proposed approach when laboratory test data are not or not yet available.

Influence of degree of interlock on confined strength of jointed hard rock masses

The strength of jointed rock mass is strongly controlled by the degree of interlock between its constituent rock blocks.The degree of interlock constrains the kinematic freedom of individual rock blocks to rotate and slide along the block forming joints.The HoekeBrown(HB)failure criterion and the geological strength index(GSI)were developed based on experiences from mine slopes and tunneling projects in moderately to poorly interlocked jointed rock masses.It has since then been demonstrated that the approach to estimate the HB strength parameters based on the GSI strength scaling equations(called the‘GSI strength equations’)tends to underestimate the confined peak strength of highly interlocked jointed rock masses(i.e.GSI>65),where the rock mass is often non-persistently jointed,and the intact rock blocks are strong and brittle.The estimation of the confined strength of such rock masses is relevant when designing mine pillars and abutments at great depths,where the confining pressure is high enough to prevent block rotation and free sliding on block boundaries.In this article,a grain-based distinct element modeling approach is used to simulate jointed rock masses of various degrees of interlock and to investigate the influences of block shape,joint persistence and joint surface condition on the confined peak strengths.The focus is on non-persistently jointed and blocky(persistently jointed)rock masses,consisting of hard and homogeneous rock blocks devoid of any strength degrading defects such as veins.The results from this investigation confirm that the GSI strength equations underestimate the confined strength of highly interlocked and non-persistently jointed rock masses.Moreover,the GSI strength equations are found to be valid to estimate the confined strength of persistently jointed rock masses with smooth and non-dilatant joint surfaces.

Effects of confinement on rock mass modulus:A synthetic rock mass modelling(SRM) study

The main objective of this paper is to examine the influence of the applied confining stress on the rock mass modulus of moderately jointed rocks（well interlocked undisturbed rock mass with blocks formed by three or less intersecting joints）. A synthetic rock mass modelling（SRM） approach is employed to determine the mechanical properties of the rock mass. In this approach, the intact body of rock is represented by the discrete element method（DEM）-Voronoi grains with the ability of simulating the initiation and propagation of microcracks within the intact part of the model. The geometry of the preexisting joints is generated by employing discrete fracture network（DFN） modelling based on field joint data collected from the Brockville Tunnel using LiDAR scanning. The geometrical characteristics of the simulated joints at a representative sample size are first validated against the field data, and then used to measure the rock quality designation（RQD）, joint spacing, areal fracture intensity（P21）, and block volumes. These geometrical quantities are used to quantitatively determine a representative range of the geological strength index（GSI）. The results show that estimating the GSI using the RQD tends to make a closer estimate of the degree of blockiness that leads to GSI values corresponding to those obtained from direct visual observations of the rock mass conditions in the field. The use of joint spacing and block volume in order to quantify the GSI value range for the studied rock mass suggests a lower range compared to that evaluated in situ. Based on numerical modelling results and laboratory data of rock testing reported in the literature, a semi-empirical equation is proposed that relates the rock mass modulus to confinement as a function of the areal fracture intensity and joint stiffness.

Tunnel behaviour and support associated with the weak rock masses of flysch

Flysch formations are generally characterised by evident heterogeneity in the presence of low strength and tectonically disturbed structures. The complexity of these geological materials demands a more specialized geoengineering characterisation. In this regard, the paper tries to discuss the standardization of the engineering geological characteristics, the assessment of the behaviour in underground excava- tions, and the instructions-guidelines for the primary support measures for flysch layer qualitatively. In order to investigate the properties of flysch rock mass, 12 tunnels of Egnatia Highway, constructed in Northern Greece, were examined considering the data obtained from the design and construction records. Flysch formations are classified thereafter in 11 rock mass types （I-XI）, according to the siltstone -sandstone proportion and their tectonic disturbance. A special geological strength index （GSI） chart for heterogeneous rock masses is used and a range of geotechnical parameters for every flysch type is presented. Standardization tunnel behaviour for every rock mass type of flysch is also presented, based on its site-specific geotechnical characteristics such as structure, intact rock strength, persistence and complexity of discontinuities. Flysch, depending on its types, can be stable even under noticeable overburden depth, and exhibit wedge sliding and wider chimney type failures or cause serious deformation even under thin cover. Squeezing can be observed under high overburden depth. The magnitude of squeezing and tunnel support requirements are also discussed for various flysch rock mass types under different overburdens. Detailed principles and guidelines for selecting immediate support mea- sures are proposed based on the principal tunnel behaviour mode and the experiences obtained from these 12 tunnels. Finally, the cost for tunnel support from these experiences is also presented.

Revisiting rock classification to estimate rock mass properties

This paper presents the results of ongoing research carried out by the author exploring methods to provide a more robust estimate of rock mass properties specifically for use in tunnel design.Data from various large-scale rock mass failures are introduced,including coal pillars.The damage-initiation,spalling-limit approach is compared to the coal pillar database.New comparisons of estimating the geological strength index(GSI)and relationships to estimate the Hoek-Brown failure criterion parameters,mb,s and a,are presented.

Discussion on“Empirical methods for determining shaft bearing capacity of semi-deep foundations socketed in rocks”[J Rock Mech Geotech Eng 6(2017)1140-151]

A new comprehensive set of data（n = 178） is compiled by adding a data set（n = 72） collected by Arioglu et al.（2007） to the data set（n = 106） presented in Rezazadeh and Eslami（2017）. Then, the compiled data set is evaluated regardless of the variation in lithology/strength. The proposed empirical equation in this study comprises a wider range of uniaxial compressive strength（UCS）（0.15 MPa 〈 σ_（rc） 〈156 MPa） and various rock types. Rock mass cuttability index（RMCI） is correlated with shaft resistance（r_s） to predict the shaft resistance of rock-socketed piles. The prediction capacity of the RMCI versus r_s equation is also found to be in a fair good agreement with the presented data in Rezazadeh and Eslami（2017）. Since the RMCI is a promising parameter in the prediction of shaft resistance, the researchers in the rock-socketed pile design area should consider this parameter in the further investigations.

Reply to Discussion on “Empirical methods for determining shaft bearing capacity of semi-deep foundations socketed in rocks”

Semi-deep foundations socketed in rocks are considered to be a viable option for the foundations in the presence of heavy loads imposed by high-rise buildings and special structures, due to the low settlement and high bearing capacity. In this study, the unconfined compressive strength（UCS） and rock mass cuttability index（RMCI） have been applied to investigating the shaft bearing capacity. For this purpose, a comprehensive database of 178 full-scale load tests is compiled by adding a data set（n = 72）collected by Arioglu et al.（2007） to the data set（n = 106） presented in Rezazadeh and Eslami（2017）.Using the database, the applicability and accuracy of the existing empirical methods are evaluated and new relations are derived between the shaft bearing capacity and UCS/RMCI. Moreover, a general equation in case of unknown rock types is proposed and it is verified by another set of data（series 3 in Rezazadeh and Eslami（2017））. Since rock-socketed shafts are supported by rock mass（not intact rock）,a reduction factor for the compressive strength is suggested and verified in which the effect of discontinuities is considered using the modified UCS, based upon RMR and RQD to consider the effect of the rock mass properties.

基于量化GSI系统对地下岩体力学参数的估算

地下岩体力学参数的准确获取可以为破碎岩体支护设计、采矿方法优化提供一定数据支撑,对保护井下作业人员安全起着重要作用。为准确、便捷获得地下岩体力学参数,采用岩体结构等级SR、岩体结构面等级SCR以及岩体完整性系数Kv 3个指标,通过多指标交集定量化获取GSI值,并结合地质强度指标GSI与扰动参数D之间存在的数理关系,量化扰动参数D,并应用Hoek-Brown强度准则确定岩体力学参数。将实际地质调查结果与室内岩石力学试验相结合,估算某地下铁矿岩体力学性能指标,发现矿体力学性能明显弱于围岩约60%,表明需加强进路巷道以及矿岩边界处的支护强度,该估算方法对地下岩体稳定性优化设计具有重要的指导意义。

基于极限平衡法和强度折减法的危岩稳定性分析

为了分析评价陡倾结构面相互组合切割形成的危岩体的稳定性,本文以龙寺CIV-1边坡危岩体为例,根据地质调查数据,建立了危岩体的简化地质模型、失稳概化理论模型以及在冻胀、地震、水力等因素影响下的力学分析模型,利用极限平衡理论推导出了危岩体的滑移稳定性系数和倾覆稳定性系数的无量纲表达式,重点分析了不同工况下危岩体的稳定性,并借助UDEC强度折减法对危岩体的形成、破坏机理进行分析研究。结果表明:不同工况下的危岩稳定性为天然工况>地震工况>暴雨工况>组合工况;层面与陡倾结构面的组合关系以及陡倾结构面的贯通程度直接控制着危岩体的稳定性和破坏模式。通过极限平衡法和UDEC强度折减法相结合的危岩体稳定性评价方法,不仅可以通过简单的数学公式高效地获取危岩体的稳定性,还可以通过力与变形的信息,直观的辨别出危岩体易失稳的部位,为陡倾结构面切割形成的危岩提供防治参考。

抽水蓄能电站蚀变岩力学特征及工程性能研究

蚀变岩体的存在对抽水蓄能电站工程岩体的稳定性有重要影响。通过室内压缩试验、剪切试验、蠕变试验、渗透试验及现场饱和剪切试验、干湿循环剪切试验等手段,分析了不同蚀变程度岩体力学特征。试验结果表明:强蚀变、弱蚀变、微蚀变岩体饱和抗压强度平均值分别为为0.2、37.9、71.8 MPa,其工程性状分别和残坡积风化物、强风化、弱风化等岩体相似;弱蚀变岩体由于矿物颗粒较粗,其内摩擦角43.10°~46.55°,比微蚀变内摩擦角39.2°~42.8°,有一定程度的增加;在抗渗透变形破坏方面,强蚀变岩体重塑样的临界渗透破坏坡降在5.356~9.773,具有碎石、砂土等渗透变形破坏特征;强蚀变岩体具有蠕变效应,强度随时间存在降低;强蚀变岩体水理化特征较明显,干湿循环后,抗剪强度出现降低0%~6%。基于蚀变岩体工程力学性能特征,建立了蚀变岩体的工程性能分级量化指标,研究成果对工程处置具有较好的指导意义。

Hoek-Brown准则中确定地质强度指标因素的量化

追踪Hoek-Brown准则利用岩块力学参数估算岩体力学参数所采取方法的进展及各种改进措施。指出Hoek创立的最新方法——地质强度指标(GSI)法完全依赖定性描述和个人主观经验的不足,揭示决定地质强度指标的物理因素是岩体结构类型,化学因素是岩石风化状况。引入基于钻孔岩芯不同完整长度的岩体块度指数,以定量地表征岩体结构。分析岩石风化在化学上是原生矿物水解、淋失促使矿物蚀变而导致岩性改变的过程,依此提出表征岩石风化状况的定量指标——岩石绝对风化指数,同时研究推出其计算方法。将岩体块度指数、绝对风化指数在地质强度指标的区间范围概化表上有机结合起来,构成了GSI的定量确定方法。利用该方法估计一公路隧道围岩的变形模量、抗拉、抗压及抗剪强度等力学参数,并计算塌落拱高度。与实测数据对比,其最大误差在14%左右,验证方法的有效性和实用性。

基于岩体波速的Hoek-Brown准则预测岩体力学参数方法及工程应用

根据建立的由岩体波速估算地质强度指标GSI和岩体扰动参数D的计算公式,引入Hoek-Brown准则,给出岩体波速预测岩体力学参数方法(简称岩体波速法)。以中缅油气管道(国内段)澜沧江跨域工程边坡岩体力学参数研究为例,并以室内岩石物理力学参数和场区声波测试数据为基础,采用岩体波速法和E.Hoek建议法预测场区的岩体力学参数。结果表明:岩体波速法和E.Hoek建议法所得的结果平均相对误差均较小,两者基本等效,数值模拟结果更进一步验证了工程应用效果的合理性。该方法在试验资料不足的情况下,能为岩体力学参数的快速评价提供一条新途径。

基于岩芯分级的Hoek-Brown准则参数研究及应用

地质强度指标(GSI)是Hoek-Brown准则中重要的参数,由于缺乏可具体测量的典型参数,GSI的取值主观性很强。基于工程钻探勘察中对片麻岩岩芯的研究,用野外典型完整岩芯照片和节理面照片代替GSI图里岩体结构的素描图,提出完整岩芯长度指标(RCL)和节理条件(Jc)两参数辅助GSI量化研究;最终建立一个直观的基于岩芯分级的通用GSI图。该GSI图与E.Hoek的方法相比主观误差小,根据该图计算出来的地基极限承载力与地勘单位建议值相比差值很小、精度高,该表可在场地钻探初期岩体力学参数的估算中推广使用。

一种确定节理岩体残余强度参数方法的探讨

岩体的地质强度指标(GSI)集中考虑岩体结构和结构面表面特征2个方面的因素,已被广泛地应用于岩体强度参数与变形参数的计算中。在GSI系统的基础上,采用残余GSI量化评价方法,通过对峰值地质强度指标GSI进行折减,以得到残余地质强度指标GSI r,据此来计算节理岩体的残余强度参数。首先,结合岩体分类指标法(RMi),在Vb和J c的基础上探讨残余岩块体积Vb r和残余节理条件系数J cr取值的确定方法;然后,由Vb r和J cr计算出GSI r,据广义Hoek-Brown准则计算出节理岩体的残余强度参数,重点对4种典型岩体的残余强度取值进行分析,讨论残余岩体体积对岩体残余强度参数的影响;最后,通过对岩体原位剪切实验数据和一桥墩承台开挖边坡的稳定性反分析,证实基于GSI r指标的节理岩体残余强度参数确定方法的合理性和可靠性,为节理岩体残余强度参数的确定提供一条新的思路。

基于地质强度指标与区间理论的岩体抗剪强度确定方法

针对采用结构面表面特征与岩体结构的定性描述确定岩体地质强度指标(GSI)时存在主观性较强的特点,首先,以结构面表面等级(SCR)、节理特征系数(Jc)、岩体结构等级(SR)与岩块体积(Vb)分别对其进行取值量化,并根据量化指标取值过程中所具有的不确定性,采用区间数表示参数取值,在探讨各量化指标取值方法基础上建立岩体GSI区间数确定方法;其次,根据Hoek-Brown准则等效岩体抗剪强度参数转换关系,采用区间组合法进行求解,进而建立出基于区间理论与GSI的岩体抗剪强度确定方法;最后,将其用于湖南省某水电站进水口隧道岩体抗剪强度确定,与现有分析方法对比表明,该方法具有一定的合理性与可行性。在试验资料不足的情况下,该方法为岩体抗剪强度参数确定提供了一条新途径。

地质强度指标的模糊综合评判法

评价岩体地质强度指标(GSI)时,因其基本要素取值过程存在较大的随机性和模糊性,很难用静态的模式去准确衡量每个影响因素,岩体特征参量的模糊性反映其内在的不确定性,模糊数学理论为更客观地刻画这种特性提供有力的数学手段。首先引入岩体节理组数Jn、节理间距l和岩体完整性系数Kv描述岩体结构特征,大比例尺波形系数Jw、小比例尺光滑系数Js和节理蚀变系数Ja描述结构面条件,然后把多因素模糊综合评判理论应用到GSI系统的评价中去,并利用层次分析法确定模糊评判因素的权重,建立GSI系统的模糊综合评判模型。工程应用表明,这种方法针对性较强、误差较小,能够将地质调查勘探结果、试验结果、统计数据以及专家意见有机结合起来,从而减小研究者决策时主观性。GSI系统的模糊综合评判法为GSI系统量化提供新的途径。

基于量化的GSI系统和Hoek-Brown准则的岩体力学参数的估计

Hoek-Brown强度准则与Mohr-Coulomb强度准则相比,综合考虑了岩体结构、岩块强度、应力状态等多种因素的影响,可更好地反映岩体的非线性破坏特征,更符合工程实际,由该准则所估算的岩体力学参数可为最终确定岩体力学参数提供重要依据。基于引入的岩体体积节理数Jv和结构面条件因子JC量化的GSI(地质强度指标)围岩分级系统和Hoek-Brown强度准则来估计岩体力学参数,并结合具体的工程估算岩体的力学参数验证应用效果,其成果对工程设计和施工有重要指导意义。