THE HISTORY AND STATUS OF GEOPOLITICS AND THE GEOPOLITICAL STRATEGIES OF CHINA

Taking the rising and declining in Geopolitics as the main lines, this paper reviews the history of the annihilation, revival and deveopment in geoplitics since the 1970s. The ideas and propositions about the world geopolitical structure after the end of Cold War, proposed by the Westem geopolitical strategists, have been introduced and assessed. About the geopolitical strategies of China in the world geopolotical structure in the future, the authors propose framework ideas. The aim of the paper is to join discussions and researches on the geopolitical strategies, and to promote the subject construction and development of human geography including Geopolitics and Political Geography.

Geopolitics of global climate change and energy security

Currently,the problem of climate change is already far beyond the category of scientific research,and it affects the economic operation mode,interests pattern,and geographical relationships and becomes the focus of global governance.During the transition period of the international economic and social development and the critical transformation period of the world geopolitical pattern reorganization,China's industrialization is still at the intermediate stage,and tackling with climate change is also China's internal demand under this development stage.With more influence of climate change on national competitiveness,climate change and geopolitics present complex multiple relations,and climate change in the era of geopolitical landscape gradually affected the national strategy and diplomacy.This article offered some relevant suggestions based on evaluating the new geopolitical characteristics of climate change:(1)weighing of interests and properly handling the complex relations among major powers during international climate negotiations;(2)strengthening risk judgments and actively cooperating with the United States and the European Union on energy and climate change;(3)relying on the"One Belt(Silk Road Economic Belt)and One Road(twenty-first century Maritime Silk Road)"to ensure China's energy security and actively participating in the global energy governance;(4)strengthening the"south-south cooperation"mechanism innovation and increasing the investment.

Victor Nozadze on Geopolitics of the Caucasus

The paper deals with the political visions of a famous Georgian scientist and public figure Victor Nozadze （1893-1975）. It refers to Nozadze＇s attempts to comprehend Georgia and Caucasus through the concepts and categories of the new discipline of those times--geopolitics. The study uncovers the main propositions of his work On the Geopolitics of the Caucasus （A Struggle for Oil） which could be considered as one of the seminal works in the history of the geopolitical thought of Georgia. The paper argues that Nozadze was significantly influenced by the works of a German geo-politician Erich Obst and he became interested in the problems of geopolitics through the publications appearing in the Journal of Geopolitics. The study proves that geopolitical analysis of Obst and Nozadze are not contradictory; rather they deal with the different geopolitical aspects. The study proposes the geopolitical conception of Victor Nozadze, which could be formulated as follows： for the empires of the old and contemporary times of Caucasus was ＂an area of growth and enlargement＂, ＂an area of competition of geopolitical powers＂, the place where ＂all imperial powers clash each-other＂, ＂Caucasus was and remains an area of competition of geopolitical powers.＂ According to Victor Nozadze, the Transcaucasia was a single entity in geographic terms and due to its geographical location Georgia always strove towards acquiring a leading role in the unification of the Caucasus. He assumed that Georgia should have maintained the same role in the future as well. Although he was well aware of those aspects which hindered the unity of the Caucasus： contradictions between Armenia and Azerbaijan, as well as the different foreign orientations of these people. Although he considered continuation of attempts for unification of the Caucasus as a necessity and tried to justify this claim through the norms and rules of geopolitics.

The Development and Game of US Digital Diplomacy Under Geopolitics

As the evolution of public diplomacy,digital diplomacy uses Internet and new communication technologies to help achieve diplomatic goals.As early as 2006,the United States began to actively develop cyber diplomacy in order to maintain and develop the broad interests of the United States in cyberspace.However,in recent years,the US digital diplomacy has encountered internal and external communication barriers,especially after the 2008 financial crisis,the US government no longer has the strength to support its diplomatic actions.At the same time,a small number of large technology companies are beginning to compete for geopolitical influence using their own financial and technological advantages as well,including Tesla President Musk,whose expansion in Starlink technology in the Ukraine crisis is an act of bringing his own funds technology to participate in U.S.digital diplomacy.

Geopolitics of the energy transition

Geopolitics of energy transition has increasingly become the frontier and hot research area of world energy geography and global political science.Different historical periods are characterised by obvious differences in energy connotations,attributes,and geopolitical characteristics.In the new energy era,energy geopolitics becomes more diversified,complex,and comprehensive.In this paper,we compare the geopolitical characteristics of energy in the fossil fuel and renewable energy periods,and provide an overview of current study trends in new energy geopolitics.Recent research shows that the global energy transition will intensify the reconstruction of geopolitical patterns,change the relationship between geopolitical security and conflict dominated by traditional energy security,alter the role of different countries in global energy geopolitical games,reshape national energy relationships formed in the traditional oil and gas era.In addition,geopolitics will be affected by new energy technologies,availability of key rare materials,and energy cybersecurity measures.Despite considerable attention to this research topic,the likely geopolitical impact of energy transition remains uncertain,and there is still room for the development and improvement of the theoretical framework,technical methods,and research perspective.Looking forward to the future,the research into geopolitics of energy transition urgently needs to strengthen its theoretical basis and rely on the scientific and quantitative methods.The practical conclusions of the research into geopolitics of energy transition should strengthen major national energy security decisions,explore the geographical effect of energy transition,and determine the impact of energy transition on energy security.Research into geopolitics of energy transition should be carried out taking into account international academic frontiers such as climate change,“carbon peak”and“carbon neutral”goals,and global energy governance,to enrich the research perspective of world energy geography.

A Study on the Structural Contradictions in the US-Turkey Alliance Relations

After the Cold War and especially since the Justice and Development Party administration led by Erdogan,the US-Turkey alliance relations have declined.The two countries have sharp structural contradictions on a series of issues.Due to the profound geopolitical landscape changes,the interdependence on security and defense between the United States and Turkey has been severely weakened,leading to significant divergence in threat definition and pursuit of interests.Turkey has continuously enhanced its diplomatic autonomy,seeking to change its weak position in the original alliance relations,and striving to become a regional leader.These structural contradictions inevitably trigger the hedging of policies and interests between the United States and Turkey.

Twenty-five years of progress in geopolitics research： Efforts from China＇s geographers

The world is currently undergoing profound changes, with a shift in global power centers and reordering of international power spaces, assigning new theoretical tasks as well as providing new opportunities for geopolitics research in China. Despite the peripheral nature of geopolitics research within their discipline, geographers have played a fundamental role in its origins and revival, from classical geopolitics（i.e., the German school of geopolitics and the Anglo-American school of geo-strategy）, to internal geopolitics（i.e., electoral geography and administrative geography）, to the new geopolitics（i.e., formal geopolitics）, and to recent critical geopolitics（i.e., popular geopolitics）. Although only few of these researchers were from China, great strides have been made in geopolitics and political geography research in China, with useful results being obtained. After demonstrating the importance of geopolitics research for the rising China, this review provides an overview of geopolitics papers led by China＇s geographers in the past few decades, describing their achievements, the problems they have faced, and the directions they have taken. Twenty-five years of geopolitics have produced a range of accomplishments, with a growth in the quality and size of research groups and institutions, an expanding literature, and some geo-strategic breakthroughs. Obviously, geographers have successfully reclaimed geopolitics, but some crucial topics are still absent or weak in the geopolitical research agenda, and need to be pursued vigorously. Most of the attention, from a positivistic perspective, has been paid to reflecting Western geopolitical thoughts, describing patterns of international power relations, and offering foreign policy advice（in a problem-focused orientation）, rather than determining mechanisms and performing theoretical analyses（in a theoretical orientation）, resulting in a lack of independent value judgments and of a theoretical basis for the subject. Moreover, in comparison with other disciplines, in terms of its academic community, research output, and status as a discipline, geopolitics research is very different from how it was three or four decades ago, when it was mainly the property of geographers, rather than political scientists and diplomats. For now, whether to support national geo-strategies or to enhance the diversity of the discipline, the involvement of geographers in geopolitics needs to become both more intensive and more extensive. The top priority is to strengthen theoretical, methodological, and problem- oriented research, including studies of geopolitical philosophy and methodology, the theoretical framework of the subject, global geopolitical evolution and shifts in power space, the roles of major powers and their geo-strategies, as well as China＇s surrounding geopolitical environment.

Energy geopolitics in Central Asia:China’s involvement and responses

To ensure adequate oil supply and mitigate geopolitical uncertainties,China has diversified its sources of crude oil imports in recent years.Central Asia is a neighbor region of China,rich in oil and natural gas reserves,which can play an important role in China's strategy to reduce its dependence on energy supplies from the Middle East.The geopolitical attributes of energy and the geopolitical situation in Central Asia determine that Central Asia's energy development and cooperation are disturbed by domestic and foreign factors,and also face the risks of complex energy structural evolution and geopolitical games,which create a unique energy geopolitical pattern in Central Asia.This study proposes an analysis framework for energy geopolitics in Central Asia,arguing that the complexity of energy geopolitics in Central Asia can be demonstrated from the perspectives of both the main countries of energy development(game actors)and the whole-industry-chain of energy development(game themes).The most obvious feature of Central Asian energy geopolitics is the fierce game that is played between key countries and regions,Russia,the United States,China,the European Union(EU),Japan,India,Iran,and Turkey.Strategic geopolitical considerations and resource requirements necessitate the active participation of these players in Central Asian energy development and mean that the foreign policy agendas of states in this region are likely to become ever more crowded.Therefore,the energy cooperation between China and Central Asia faces the geopolitical risks of the great power games.It is necessary to develop reasonable and effective policies to establish guarantee mechanisms to minimize the risks of energy cooperation.This study characterizes the energy geopolitical strategies of Russia,the United States,China,and other related powers in Central Asia.It also assesses the country risks faced by energy cooperation between China and Central Asian countries.To withstand possible geopolitical and country risks,this study develops a series of policy frameworks which can be used to fortify the stability of the energy cooperation between China and Central Asian countries,and can also be effective in responding to the array of risks that might be encountered in the coming years.

The Renaissance London in Verses and The Political Imagination of The Rise of Britain

Cities are co-built spaces by natural environment and human activities, and their formation and development rely on human activities. City spaces, according to Henri Lefebvre, are not only tangible and perceivable, but also heterogeneous, which can be reconstructed. London, as the most ancient city and the political, economic and cultural center of Britain, was depicted in verses of different periods, within which its landscape and city spaces took on different visions and had been endowed with various meanings. The heterogeneous London city spaces reveal historical changes, and, at the same time, reflect how the literary writers understand, perceive and expect from the city. From the Renaissance verses, readers can not only see what the London city was like in realistic writings, but also the imagined spaces based on the reconstructed history, which are the embodiment of the writers’ geopolitical imagination.

The New “Waterways and Sea Canals” Strategy in the “Continent of Asia” and Its Implications on the Global Map

This paper reviews a strategic scientific proposal to dig and construct three navigable sea lanes linking isolated inland seas and blocked side bays and linking it with the open seas, to facilitate the movement of free trade and international navigation, and to break the captivity of geographically isolated environments, and to give a strategic advantage to some areas and sectors that are neglected politically, socially, economically and environmentally, and to adopt the strategy of establishing a marine channel between the “Caspian Sea” and the “Black Sea” through the “lands belonging to Russia”. On digging a navigational canal at the lowest cost in a plain area within the territory of Russia, with a length of approximately 600 kilometers (616 km), starting from the nearest bay in the Caspian Sea, passing near the city of “Pyatigorsk” to the city of “Sochi” on the Black Sea, while it comes: -The strategy of the waterway and the sea channel between the “Caspian Sea” and the “Arabian Gulf” through the “lands belonging to Iran” by digging and cutting a path in the rocks with a width of 100 meters and a length of about 700 kilometers, and at a time rate of less than 10 years, and this project will liberate all countries in the Caspian Sea, and the study concludes with the strategy of the navigational channel between the “Arabian Gulf” and the “Mediterranean Sea” through the two countries of “Iraq-Syria”, with a length of about 1350 km, and the world will benefit in the security, commercial and political fields.

Geopolitical Analysis of the Entry of Finland and Sweden to the North Atlantic Treaty Organization(NATO)

Russia’s invasion of Ukraine has significantly altered the pattern of alliances and geopolitical balances on the European continent to such an extent that countries like Finland and Sweden that have traditionally remained neutral are now applying to join the North Atlantic Treaty Organization(NATO).These two countries fear that Russia,which is currently trying to reposition itself,could try in the near future to invade these two Nordic countries to prevent the West(European Union,United Kingdom,and United States)from increasing its military presence and its military force in the Scandinavian peninsula and in the Baltic Sea.The enlargement that the European Union(EU)has carried out since the 1990s,and that has also meant the expansion of NATO,has been viewed with great concern by the government of Vladimir Putin,who considers that the United States and the European Union did not fulfill their commitment to former Russian President Mikhail Gorbachev to respect the sphere of influence of the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics(USSR).Within the framework of this geopolitical confrontation,Helsinki and Stockholm do not want to run the risk of being invaded by the Russian army,which is why they seek to take advantage of the principle of collective security that NATO membership would grant them.

Bridging Civilizations From Asia to Europe： The Silk Road

Throughout history, Silk Road played an important role with connecting more than 50 countries between its endpoints. Reviving this ancient trade route is a contemporary discussion among politicians. There are many projects realized and proposed for the resurgence of the modem Silk Road, including the railroad project connecting Baku, Tiflis and Kars of Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Turkey; the undersea rail tunnel under the Bosphorus strait, Marmaray; the Silk Road Economic Belt proposed by China; and the Maritime Silk Road, again proposed by China. Just like the original Silk Road, it was not only a route for caravans or trade, but it was a meeting point for cultural, religious, and philosophical exchanges that served humanity for centuries; today＇s modem Silk Road initiatives should be considered as bridges between Eastern and Western civilizations that will serve the same purpose of its ancient predecessor. The revived Silk Road will facilitate strengthening of relationships in between countries that experienced harmony in history. The railways, transportation facilities, transnational gates, energy corridors, and natural gas pipelines that constitute the Silk Road will transform the region with improving its economy and bringing peace and economic prosperity. With recent developments, it witnesses the importance of geopolitical and historical ties in establishing contemporary alliances. Although there are great expectations with the revival of the modern Silk Road, authors would like to emphasize that it should be an agreement to foster shared interests rather than the interest of bigger partners.

The Advent of Competing Foreign Powers in the Geostrategic Horn of Africa： Analysis of Opportunity and Security Risk for Ethiopia

This paper examines the opportunity and security implication of the advent of competing foreign powers in the geostrategic Horn of Africa for Ethiopia. Accordingly, the paper argues that since the advent of competing foreign powers in Horn of Africa is both an opportunity and security risk for Ethiopia, there is a need for a rational and assertive foreign policy aimed at utilizing the opportunity, minimizing the risk and countering neo-colonialism and ＂Clientelism＂. Methodologically, the study employed qualitative research methodology. Accordingly, the study used secondary source of data; collected from books, published journal articles, published and unpublished theses and dissertation, governmental and non-governmental organization reports and remarks, magazines and other internet sources. To substantiate the data, the paper also used primary data collected through key informant interviews. Given the data gathered are qualitative, the study employed qualitative data analysis techniques. The fmding of the study shows that Horn of Africa has become ＂an athletic field＂ of foreign powers. It can be argued that the region has become ＂a military garrison＂： US, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, China and Saudi Arabia have already established their military base at Djibouti. Thus, the militarization of the Horn is both an opportunity as well as a risk for Ethiopia, a nucleus and landlocked country of the sub-region. It is an opportunity in areas of military, regional stability, accelerating factor of regional integration and economic worth. However, these opportunities are largely determined by the Ethiopia＇s diplomatic utmost effort and policy reorientation. Despite these opportunities, the rise of foreign powers in the Horn of Africa has a security risk： national security, economic, political and military. Therefore, Ethiopia needs a rational and assertive foreign policy to utilize the opportunities and at times to minimize the security risk. First, in domestic policy setting constitutionalism is highly needed which is imperative. Second, regionally, Ethiopia must stabilize and normalize its relation with Eritrea. Moreover, Ethiopia must strength its relation with all of its neighbors. Third, Ethiopia must maintain a good relation with foreign powers that already established a military base in Djibouti. In this regard, over-reliance on some foreign powers and neglecting others, becoming an instrument of foreign powers must be avoided. Rather Ethiopia must use a rational policy and at times must follow the foreign policy of Emperor Menelik ＂playing one foreign power over the other＂. Moreover, emphasis also should be given to the importance of collective security. Finally, Ethiopia and the region must work towards countering neo-colonialism and patron-client relations. Falling to adopt countering strategy may be quoted as ＂neo-colonialism and Clientelism＂ by invitation.

Industrial Policy and the Great Power Competition

Since the end of the Cold War,major powers have avoided direct military confrontation,wary of the devastating consequences of nuclear warfare.Yet the arms race and regional conflicts remain important forms of power competition.Nonetheless,in the era of globalization,rapid advancements in new technologies and industries have eclipsed the utility of geopolitical maneuvers and military competition.In today’s world,the great power competition goes beyond the arms race and GDP aggregates.What matters more is the race to innovate and apply new technologies through a complete range of industrial sectors.In a world where technology has a controlling influence,industrial security has become the linchpin of national security.As globalization reshapes the world’s industrial landscape,a country’s economic influence,military might and national security depend increasingly on its industrial structure.National security is contingent upon industrial strength.In the era of globalization,industrial policy,cutting-edge technologies and market size are dominant factors influencing a country’s competitive position.The essence of the great power competition are industrial policies that fully unlock a country’s industrial potential and implementation of the policies.

Role of Geoscience in Building a Sustainable World:Energy Perspective

"We have the brain power and even money power; what we need is a sense of urgency to harness these systems in a big way so that we would become self-reliant in energy,not in the distant future."Man’s quest for exploring the material resources hidden beneath the land and water has been ceaseless since time immortal.In fact, our history is a chronicle of man’s achievements in harnessing nature’s bounty.With the ever

THE WATER RESOURCES IN THE EUPHRATES RIVER AND THE TIGRIS RIVER VALLEYS AND POLITICAL RELATION BETWEEN COUNTRIES CONCERNED

Recently at home and abroad there appears a view that owing to scarcity of the water resources and rapid increase in population in the Middle East and existing of large rivers, such as the Euphrates River and the Tigris River, the contradictions over the water resources have become increasingly sharp among the countries concerned, and a war for water will soon break out in the region. The authors of the present paper, however, put forward a different view, believing that no war for controlling the water resources will take place in the region.

Revelation of Multinational Acquisition Theory for Chinese Oil Companies’ Overseas Investment

This paper introduces multinational acquisition theory and explains its importance in the context of Chinese petroleum industry and overseas acquisition activities of three major oil companies, CNPC, SINOPEC and CNOOC. Strategic options for their overseas investment are recommended and further assessed in terms of geopolitics.

Myanmar＇s Political Transition and the Adjustments of U Thein Sein Administra-tion＇s Policies towards China

During 2010-2011, Myanmar started its political transition. The U Thein SeinAdministration has made obvious policy adjustments towards China after it replaced the Mili-tary government. However, such adjustments were limited, as Myanmar hasn＇t totally lean tothe West, but keeping relatively closer political contact with China. Empirical analysis showsthat political institu6on and ideology are not the key reasons leading to such adjustments？China-Myanmar relations had undergone fluctuation, osdlla6on and stability during 2011-2016, the root causes of which are the legality of political power, national security based ongeopolitics and economic development demands of＂ Myanmar people. Moreover, those threefactors remain the primary considerations of the NLD Government when it handling relationswith China.

An Analysis of Lancang-Mekong Cooperation Mechanism in China’s Neighboring Diplomacy

The Indochina Peninsula is of special and important significance to China's geopolitical strategy,which is the foothold of China's strategy in Southeast Asia and even the whole Asia-Pacific region,as well as the strategic springboard of*China s global development.In 2016,China led the establishment of the Lancang-Mekong Cooperation mechanism,and achieved remarkable results in terms of institutional development,project implementation and the construction of international relations among member states in the short term.The establishment and rapid development of the Lancang-Mekong Cooperation is based on member states,strong willingness to cooperate.It also benefits from the rational design of their institutional structures,geographical advantages,strong and complementary economies,and close sociocultural similarities.On the other hand,the further development of the Lancang?Mekong Cooperation is facing many risks and challenges as a result of the complexities of the internal environment of the Indochina Peninsula and the geopolitical competition of extraterritorial forces in the region.In this regard,China should make more efforts to improve relevant institutional arrangements for the Lancang-Mekong Cooperation,broaden the areas and enrich the content of cooperation,coordinate with extraterritorial forces and increase the number of stakeholders.