Three modes of climate change since the Last Glacial Maximum in arid and semi-arid regions of the Asian continent

The westerly winds and East Asian summer monsoon play a leading role in climate change of southwestern North America and eastern Asia since the Last Glacial Maximum(LGM),respectively.Their convergence in arid and semi-arid regions of the Asian continent(AAC)makes the regional climate change more complicated on the millennial-scale.There are still limitations in applying paleoclimate records and climate simulations of characteristic periods to investigate climate change patterns since the LGM in this region.In this study,we adopt two indexes indicating effective moisture and rely on a continuous simulation,a time slice simulation,and numerous paleoclimate records to comprehensively investigate the climate change modes and their driving mechanisms since the LGM in AAC.Results demonstrate a millennial-scale climate differentiation phenomenon and three climate change modes possibly occurring in AAC since the LGM.The western AAC largely controlled by the westerly winds is featured as wet climates during the LGM but relatively dry climates during the mid-Holocene(MH),coinciding with the climate change mode in southwestern North America.Conversely,dry conditions during the LGM and relatively wet conditions during the MH are reflected in eastern AAC governed by the East Asian summer monsoon,which leans to the climate change mode in eastern Asia.If climate change in central AAC is forced by the interaction of two circulations,it expresses wet conditions in both the LGM and MH,tending to a combination of the southwestern North American and eastern Asian modes.Precipitation and evaporation exert different intensities in influencing three climate modes of different periods.Furthermore,we identify the significant driving effects of greenhouse gases and ice sheets on westerly-dominated zones of AAC,while orbit-driven insolation on monsoon-dominated zones of AAC.

Modeling the East Asian climate during the last glacial maximum

Using the CCM3 global climate model of National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR), this paper comparatively analyzes the characteristics of East Asian monsoon and surface water condition and the expansion of glacier on the Qinghai-Xizang (Tibetan) Plateau (QXP) be-tween the present and the last glacial maximum (LGM). It is found that the winter monsoon is re-markably stronger during the LGM than at present in the north part of China and the western Pa-cific but varies little in the south part of China. The summer monsoon remarkably weakens in South China Sea and the south part of China during the LGM and has no remarkable changes in the north part of China between the present and the LGM. Due to the alternations of the monsoons during the LGM, the annual mean precipitation significantly decreases in the northeast of China and the most part of north China and the Loess Plateau and the eastern QXP, which makes the earth surface lose more water and becomes dry, especially in the eastern QXP and the western Loess Plateau. In some areas of the middle QXP the decrease of evaporation at the earth surface causes soil to become wetter during the LGM than at present, which favors the water level of local lakes to rise during the LGM. Additionally, compared to the present, the depth of snow cover in-creases remarkably on the most part of the QXP during the LGM winter. The analysis of equilib-rium line altitude (ELA) of glaciers on the QXP, calculated on the basis of the simulated tempera-ture and precipitation, shows that although a less decrease of air temperature was simulated dur-ing the LGM in this paper, the balance between precipitation and air temperature associated with the atmospheric physical processes in the model makes the ELA be 300—900 m lower during the LGM than at present, namely going down from the present ELA above 5400 m to 4600—5200 m during the LGM, indicating a unified ice sheet on the QXP during the LGM.

AN AGCM +SSiB MODEL SIMULATION ON CHANGES IN PALAEOMONSOON CLIMATE AT 21 KA BP IN CHINA

The numerical simulation experiment of climate at Last Glacial Maximum (LGM.21 ka BP) in China is made by using an atmospheric general circulation model (AGCM) coupled with land surface processes (AGCM+SSiB) and earth orbital parameters and boundary forcing conditions at 21 ka.The modeled climate features are compared with reconstructed conditions at 21 ka from paleo-lake data and pollen data.The results show that the simulated climate conditions at 21 ka in China are fairly comparable with paleo-climatological data.The climate features at 21 ka in China from the experiment are characterized by a drier in the east and a wetter in the west and in the Tibetan Plateau as well.According to the analysis of distribution of pressure and precipitation,as well as the intensity of atmospheric circulation at 21 ka,monsoon circulation in eastern Asia was significantly weak comparing with the present.In the Tibetan Plateau,the intensity of summer monsoon circulation was strengthened,and winter monsoon was a little stronger than the present. The simulation with given forcing boundary conditions,especially the different vegetation coverage,can reproduce the climate condition at the LGM in China,and therefore provides dynamical mechanisms on the climate changes at 21 ka.

The terrestrial NPP simulations in China since Last Glacial Maximum

Based on Atmosphere-Vegetation Interaction Model (AVIM), the magnitude and spatial distribution of terrestrial net primary productivity (NPP) in China is simu-lated during three different geological eras, Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), Mid-Holocene (MH) and the present. The simulation shows that the glacial-interglacial variation of East Asian summer monsoon in China is the key factor af-fecting the NPP change. During the three eras, mean NPPs are 208 g/m2·a, 409 g/m2·a, and 355 g/m2·a. The total NPPs are 2.05 Pg/a, 3.89 Pg/a and 3.33 Pg/a, respectively. The ter-restrial NPP in China during warm-humid climate is larger than that during cold-arid eras, and the correlation analysis between NPP and climate factors suggests that temperature is the primary factor affecting the terrestrial NPP during 21 kaBP (LGM), and for 6 kaBP (MH) and the present the pri-mary factor is precipitation.

Tessellons, topography, and glaciations on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau

The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau has developed into a vast fortress-like structure that has recently presented a barrier limiting the egress of moisture-bearing air masses. Lower sea levels also affected the climate. This paper examines their effects on the current evidence for the timing of past glaciations, and the development and evolution of permafrost. There are two theories regarding glaciation on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau （QTP）. Kuhle suggested that there was a major, unified ice-cap during the Last Glacial Maximum （LGM）, whereas major Chinese glaciologists and others have not found or verified reliable evidence for this per se. There have been limited glaciations during the last 1.1 Ma B.P. but with increasing dominance of permafrost including both primary and secondary tessellons infilled with rock, sand or loess. The East Asia Monsoon was absent in this area during the main LGM, starting at 〉30 ka B.P. on the plateau, with sufficient precipitation reappearing about 19 ka B.P. to produce ice-wedges. A weak Megathermal event took place between 8.5 and 6.0 ka B.P., followed by Neoglacial events exhibiting peak cold at 5.3-4.7 ka, 3.1-1.5 ka, and the Little Ice Age （LIA） after 0.7 ka. Subsequently, mean annual air temperature has increased by 4 ℃.

末次冰期东亚季风气候的数值模拟研究

利用一个T42全球大气环流谱模式模拟了现代及未次冰期极盛时期（21kaB．P．）边界条件下的东亚季风气候，并与中国区域内古气候变化的地质证据进行了对比。综合分析表明，末次冰期时东亚冬季风强盛，夏季风衰退，气候大陆度增加。年平均气温普遍下降，我国华南、西北东部至华北、东北地区分别比现代降温2—4℃、8－10℃及10℃以上；季风区降水明显减少，与现代相比，东南沿海、江淮至华北、东北地区年降水量分别减少70－80％、60－70％、30－40％。中国中、东部半干旱于草原向南推进了8－10个纬度，多年冻土南界也向南移动约6个纬度，青藏高原雪线约降低了300－800m。

LGM时期气候背景下中国区域植被变化对东亚夏季降水影响的模拟

利用CCM3/NCAR全球气候模式在21 kaB.P.(2.1万年前)的末次盛冰期(LGM)气候背景下,对中国区域植被变化对夏季(6～7月)东亚季风降水的影响进行了模拟,结果表明:在LGM时期气候背景下,植被退化会使得中国东南部夏季降水减少,其中东南沿海减少超过20mm,而在100°E以东的中国北方大部分地区降水增加,其中心值大于50mm,从而导致降水南少北多的现象,植被的这种影响可以从物理上得到解释。在LGM气候背景下,植被退化在暖季起着增温的作用,即通过影响地表热状况使夏季大陆增温,增强了夏季东亚大陆与其周边海域的热力差异,从而使夏季东亚地区的西南风增强,35°～45°N的北方地区对流层低层的空气辐合和对流层上升运动加强,伴随着在30°N以南的中国南方地区出现异常下沉运动;同时,西南季风的加强也导致夏季在30°～40°N之间的华北地区低层水汽输送加大。在这些因子的共同作用下,中国北方夏季降水增多,而东南部降水减少。这些结果说明使用LGM时期中国区域不同的重建植被资料可以对东亚季风气候模拟产生一定的不确定性。因此,重建可信度高的东亚植被对于降低对气候模拟的不确定性是十分重要的。

关于冰期演变三个问题的讨论

施雅风和李吉均（1994）在总结80年代以来中国冰川学研究的新进展中，提出了3个有待深化和争论的问题：1）不同地区最大冰期出现先后差别的原因尚不清楚；对是否存在一种与季风区相反的模式，即冰期与雨期同步；3）在冰期变化中"气候因素与构造因素何者为主".这3个问题也可以说是本世纪冰川学研究留给下世纪的3个问题．它的解决只有冰川学、气候学和地球动力学等的结合才有可能文章拟对此3个问题提点看法，以期"抛砖引玉"．

末次冰盛期和中全新世气候模拟分析进展

回顾了课题组近年来有关末次冰盛期和中全新世气候模拟分析的研究进展,包括中国气候、东亚和全球季风以及相关的主要大气环流系统等变化。多模式试验数据的分析表明,末次冰盛期中国降温和年均有效降水变化与重建记录定性一致,但模拟幅度偏弱;中国冻土区扩张、永冻土区活动层变薄,中国西部冰川物质平衡线高度降低;东亚季风变化在不同模式间差异较大,中国季风区范围和季风降水减小,北半球陆地季风区南移、全球季风区缩小和降水强度减弱共同引起全球季风降水减少;全球降水和潜在蒸散发共同减小使得全球干湿变化总体很小;北半球西风带在高层北移、低层南移,热带宽度变化依赖于指标的选取,厄尔尼诺—南方涛动气候影响、热带太平洋沃克环流均减弱并东移。在中全新世,多模式模拟的中国年和冬季偏冷仍然与大部分重建记录显示的偏暖不同;东亚冬季风增强,东亚夏季降水变化存在空间不一致性;中国和全球尺度的季风区范围和季风降水均增加;东北多年冻土退化、青藏高原多年冻土向低海拔扩张,北半球永冻土区减小、季节性冻土扩张、冻土区北退、永冻土区活动层变厚;全球干旱区面积总体变化很小;夏季东亚西风急流显著减弱并北移,厄尔尼诺—南方涛动减弱,热带太平洋沃克环流加强并西移。上述变化主要是对末次冰盛期大范围冰盖和较低温室气体浓度或中全新世轨道强迫的响应,海洋反馈起一定调制作用,植被反馈作用具有不确定性;模式与记录不一致的原因仍待深入探究。