Comparison of Precipitation Observations from a Prototype Space-based Cloud Radar and Ground-based Radars

A prototype space-based cloud radar has been a precipitation system over Tianjin, China in July developed and was installed on an airplane to observe 2010. Ground-based S-band and Ka-band radars were used to examine the observational capability of the prototype. A cross-comparison algorithm between different wavelengths, spatial resolutions and platform radars is presented. The reflectivity biases, correlation coefficients and standard deviations between the radars are analyzed. The equivalent reflectivity bias between the S- and Ka-band radars were simulated with a given raindrop size distribution. The results indicated that reflectivity bias between the S- and Ka-band radars due to scattering properties was less than 5 dB, and for weak precipitation the bias was negligible. The prototype space-based cloud radar was able to measure a reasonable vertical profile of reflectivity, but the reflectivity below an altitude of 1.5 km above ground level was obscured by ground clutter. The measured refiectivity by the prototype space-based cloud radar was approximately 10.9 dB stronger than that by the S-band Doppler radar （SA radar）, and 13.7 dB stronger than that by the ground-based cloud radar. The reflectivity measured by the SA radar was 0.4 dB stronger than that by the ground-based cloud radar. This study could provide a method for the quantitative examination of the observation ability for space-based radars.

Satellite-based Observational Study of the Tibetan Plateau Vortex:Features of Deep Convective Cloud Tops

In this study, an east-moving Tibetan Plateau vortex(TPV) is analyzed by using the ERA-5 reanalysis and multi-source satellite data, including FengYun-2 E, Aqua/MODIS and CALIPSO. The objective is to demonstrate:(i) the usefulness of multi-spectral satellite observations in understanding the evolution of a TPV and the associated rainfall, and(ii) the potential significance of cloud-top quantitative information in improving Southwest China weather forecasts. Results in this study show that the heavy rainfall is caused by the coupling of an east-moving TPV and some low-level weather systems [a Plateau shear line and a Southwest Vortex(SWV)], wherein the TPV is a key component. During the TPV's life cycle, the rainfall and vortex intensity maintain a significant positive correlation with the convective cloud-top fraction and height within a 2.5?radius away from its center. Moreover, its growth is found to be quite sensitive to the cloud phases and particle sizes. In the mature stage when the TPV is coupled with an SWV, an increase of small ice crystal particles and appearance of ring-and U/V-shaped cold cloud-top structures can be seen as the signature of a stronger convection and rainfall enhancement within the TPV. A tropopause folding caused by ageostrophic flows at the upper level may be a key factor in the formation of ring-shaped and U/V-shaped cloud-top structures. Based on these results, we believe that the supplementary quantitative information of an east-moving TPV cloud top collected by multi-spectral satellite observations could help to improve Southwest China short-range/nowcasting weather forecasts.

Aircraft observation of cloud microphysical characteristics of pre-stratiform-cloud precipitation in Jiangxi Province

本文利用2015年11月11日江西省赣州市一次降水前期层状云的DMT资料,结合雷达数据,综合分析了在高空槽影响下云系的宏微观结构特征。结果表明:(1)探测属于降水前期,云系呈多层分布。(2)层状云系在水平和垂直方向存在不均匀性,0°C层上下满足播种云-供应云机制。0°C层以上为播种云,凝华,粘连增长占主要过程。0°C层以下的暖层为供应云,粒子在液态水含量丰富的供应云体中长大,冰晶的融化聚并过程使得有效直径显著增大。下降到4150m的高度,冰晶完全融化变为雨滴。

A Comprehensive Observational Analysis for the Effects of Gas Cannons on Clouds and Precipitation

To analyze the effects of gas cannons on clouds and precipitation,multisource observational data,including those from National Centers for Environmental Prediction(NCEP)reanalysis,Hangzhou and Huzhou new-generation weather radars,laser disdrometer,ground-based automatic weather station,wind profiler radar,and Lin'an C-band dualpolarization radar,were adopted in this study.Based on the variational dual-Doppler wind retrieval method and the polarimetric variables obtained by the dual-polarization radar,we analyzed the microphysical processes and the variations in the macro-and microphysical quantities in clouds from the perspective of the synoptic background before precipitation enhancement,the polarization echo characteristics before,during and after enhancement,and the evolution of the fine three-dimensional kinematic structure and the microphysical structure.The results show that the precipitation enhancement operation promoted the development of radar echoes and prolonged their duration,and both the horizontal and vertical wind speeds increased.The dual-polarization radar echo showed that the diameter of the precipitation particles increased,and the concentration of raindrops increased after precipitation enhancement.The raindrops were lifted to a height corresponding to 0 to-20℃due to vertical updrafts.Based on the disdrometer data during precipitation enhancement,the concentration of small raindrops(lgN_(w))showed a significant increase,and the mass-weighted diameter D_(m)value decreased,indicating that the precipitation enhancement operation played a certain“lubricating”effect.After the precipitation enhancement,the concentration of raindrops did not change much compared with that during the enhancement process,while the Dm increased,corresponding to an increase in rain intensity.The results suggest the positive effect of gas cannons on precipitation enhancement.

Aircraft Observations of Electrical Conductivity in Warm Clouds

Aircraft observations of electrical conductivity and cloud microphsical, dynamical and other electrical parameters were made in warm stratocumulus and cumulus clouds forming during the summer monsoon seasons (June-September) of 1983 and 1985 in the Deccan Plateau region, India. A Gerdien type cylindrical condenser was used for the measurement of electrical conductivity. The variations in the electrical conductivity are observed to be closely associated with the updrafts and downdrafts in the cloud, liquid water content, cloud droplet charge and corona discharge current. The value of electrical conductivity in warm clouds is found to be in the order of 10-12 ohm-1 m-1 which is two orders higher than that observed in clear-air at cloud-base levels in some regions by other investigators.Classical static electricity concepts predict reduced conductivity values inside clouds. Cloud electrical conductivity measurements, particularly in warm clouds are few and the results are contradictory. The recently identified mechanism of vertical mixing in clouds lends support to convective charge separation mechanism with inherent larger than clear-air values for cloud electrical conductivity and therefore consistent with the measurements reported herein.

Comparison of Satellite and Ship Observations for Total Cloud Amount

The data series of monthly clouldiness over global ocean from COADS was compared with that of from satellite Nimbus-7 during April 1979 to March 1985. The correspondence between them is good. Both the two methods of observation can provide useful information of the distribution of cloudiness and the two data sets can be mutually complementary.

Aircraft Observation Analysis on Stratiform Cloud Structure near a Low Trough - Inverted Trough

An aircraft precipitation operation and detecting was implemented by Hebei Weather Modification Office over Shijiazhuang City during18:18-19:37 on April 2,2014. The detecting area was near 500 hP a of high-altitude trough and surface inverted trough. Slight shower had appeared in Tianjin( rear of inverted trough) and Shanxi Province( near the inverted trough) at 20:00,while there was not precipitation in Hebei Province which was near the inverted trough. Analysis showed that the water vapor supply was not enough below 550 hP a in south-central Hebei Province,and cloud system development condition was poor. The cold cloud developed better,but there was not warm cloud,causing no precipitation on the ground.

Examination of the Quality of GOSAT/CAI Cloud Flag Data over Beijing Using Ground-based Cloud Data

It has been several years since the Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite （GOSAT） began to observe the distribution of CO2 and CH4 over the globe from space. Results from Thermal and Near-infrared Sensor for Carbon Observation-Cloud and Aerosol Imager （TANSO-CAI） cloud screening are necessary for the retrieval of CO2 and CH4 gas concentrations for GOSAT TANSO-Fourier Transform Spectrometer （FTS） observations. In this study, TANSO-CAI cloud flag data were compared with ground-based cloud data collected by an all-sky imager （ASI） over Beijing from June 2009 to May 2012 to examine the data quality. The results showed that the CAI has an obvious cloudy tendency bias over Beijing, especially in winter. The main reason might be that heavy aerosols in the sky are incorrectly determined as cloudy pixels by the CAI algorithm. Results also showed that the CAI algorithm sometimes neglects some high thin cirrus cloud over this area.

Ground-Based Cloud Using Exponential Entropy/Exponential Gray Entropy and UPSO

Objective and accurate classification model or method of cloud image is a prerequisite for accurate weather monitoring and forecast.Thus safety of aircraft taking off and landing and air flight can be guaranteed.Thresholding is a kind of simple and effective method of cloud classification.It can realize automated ground-based cloud detection and cloudage observation.The existing segmentation methods based on fixed threshold and single threshold cannot achieve good segmentation effect.Thus it is difficult to obtain the accurate result of cloud detection and cloudage observation.In view of the above-mentioned problems,multi-thresholding methods of ground-based cloud based on exponential entropy/exponential gray entropy and uniform searching particle swarm optimization(UPSO)are proposed.Exponential entropy and exponential gray entropy make up for the defects of undefined value and zero value in Shannon entropy.In addition,exponential gray entropy reflects the relative uniformity of gray levels within the cloud cluster and background cluster.Cloud regions and background regions of different gray level ranges can be distinguished more precisely using the multi-thresholding strategy.In order to reduce computational complexity of original exhaustive algorithm for multi-threshold selection,the UPSO algorithm is adopted.It can find the optimal thresholds quickly and accurately.As a result,the real-time processing of segmentation of groundbased cloud image can be realized.The experimental results show that,in comparison with the existing groundbased cloud image segmentation methods and multi-thresholding method based on maximum Shannon entropy,the proposed methods can extract the boundary shape,textures and details feature of cloud more clearly.Therefore,the accuracies of cloudage detection and morphology classification for ground-based cloud are both improved.

Some Physical Aspects of Summer Monsoon Clouds-Comparison of Cloud Model Results with Observations

The physical characteristics of the summer monsoon clouds were investigated. The results of a simple cloud model were compared with the aircraft cloud physical observations collected during the summer monsoon seasons of 1973, 1974, 1976 and 1981 in the Deccan Plateau region.The model predicted profiles of cloud liquid water content (LWC) are in agreement with the observed profiles. There is reasonable agreement between the model predicted cloud vertical thickness and observed rainfall.The observed cloud-drop spectra were found to be narrow and the concentration of drops with diameter > 20um is either low or absent on many occasions. In such clouds the rain-formation cannot take place under natural atmospheric conditions due to the absence of collision-coalescence process. A comparison of the model predicted and observed rainfall suggested that the precipitation efficiency in cumulus clouds of small vertical thickness could be as low as 20 per cent.The clouds forming in the Deccan Plateau region during the summer monsoon are, by and large, cumulus and strato-cumulus type. The vertical thickness of the cumulus clouds is in the range of 1.0-2.0 km. The LWC is found to be more in the region between 1.6-1.9 km A. S. L. , which corresponds to the level at almost 3 / 4 th of the total vertical thickness of the cloud and thereafter the LWC sharply decreased. Nearly 98 per cent of the tops of the low clouds in the region are below freezing level and the most frequent range of occurrence of these cloud-tops is in the range of 2.0-3.0 km A. S. L. The dominant physical mechanism of rain-formation in these summer monsoon clouds is the collision-coalescence process.

Preliminary Evaluation of a Model for Stratiform Cloud Microphysical Structure by Observation and Simulation

The microphysical "three-layer" model for stratiform clouds over a midlatitude location in Northwest China is investigated by combining in situ airborne Particle Measuring Systems, Inc. (PMS), radar measurements, and the NCAR/Penn State Mesoscale Model Version 5 (MM5) simulation with a two-moment microphysics scheme. The coexistence of measured supercooled liquid water and small ice particles produces snow particles below the cloud top in the second layer. Peak number concentration and mean diameter of cloud water and raindrop appear in the third warm layer. A thin dry layer just below the melting layer is also observed. The predicted precipitation is tested by equitable threat score. The melting layer is clearly defined in the radar image and model radar reflectivity output is agreement with the observations. The model results provide features of the microphysical structure for every layer of "three-layer" model at Yan'an station. For both observation and model simulation, the "three-layer" model explains the stratiform precipitation formation completely and comprehensively.

A 35-GHz Polarimetric Doppler Radar and Its Application for Observing Clouds Associated with Typhoon Nuri

Millimeter-wavelength radar has proved to be an effective instrument for cloud observation and research. In this study, 8-mm-wavelength cloud radar （MMCR） with Doppler and polarization capabilities was used to investigate cloud dynamics in China for the first time. Its design, system specifications, calibration, and application in measuring clouds associated with typhoon are discussed in this article. The cloud radar measurements of radar reflectivity （Z）, Doppler velocity （Vr）, velocity spectrum width （Sw） and the depolar-ization ratio （LDR） at vertical incidence were used to analyze the microphysical and dynamic processes of the cloud system and precipitation associated with Typhoon Nuri, which occurred in southern China in August 2008. The results show the reflectivity observed using MMCR to be consistent with the echo height and the melting-layer location data obtained by the nearby China S-band new-generation weather radar （SA）, but the Ka-band MMCR provided more detailed structural information about clouds and weak precipitation data than did the SA radar. The variation of radar reflectivity and LDR in vertical structure reveals the transformation of particle phase from ice to water. The vertical velocity and velocity spectrum width of MMCR observations indicate an updraft and strong turbulence in the stratiform cloud layer. MMCR provides a valuable new technology for meteorological research in China.

High Speed Observation of Periodic Cavity Behavior in a Convergent-Divergent Nozzle for Cavitating Water Jet

Cloud cavitation shows an unsteady periodic tendency under a certain flow condition. In a cavitating water jet flow with cavitation clouds, the cavities or the clouds produce high impact at their collapse. In order to make clear a mechanism of the periodic cavity behavior, we experimentally examine the behavior in a transparent cylindrical convergent-divergent nozzle using a high-speed video camera. An effect of upstream pressure fluctuation due to a plunger pump is investigated from a viewpoint of unsteady behavior in a cavitating water jet. As a result, it is found that the cavitating flow has two kinds of oscillation patterns in the cavity length (cavitation cloud region). One is due to the upstream pressure fluctuation caused by the plunger pump. The other is much shorter periodic motion related to the characteristic oscillation of cavitation clouds accompanied with the shrinking (reentrant), growing and shedding motion of the clouds.

Unsteady Behavior of Cavitating Waterjet in an Axisymmetric Convergent-Divergent Nozzle: High Speed Observation and Image Analysis Based on Frame Difference Method

Although it is well known that cloud cavitation shows unsteady behavior with the growing motion of an attached cavity, the shedding motion of a cloud, the collapsing motion of the cloud shed downstream and a reentrant motion in flow fields such as on a 2-D hydrofoil and in a convergent- divergent channel with a rectangular cross-section, observations for the periodic behavior of cloud cavitation in a cylindrical nozzle with a convergent-divergent part, which is mainly used in an industrial field, have hardly been conducted. From engineering viewpoints, it is important to elucidate the mechanism of periodic cavitation behavior in a cylindrical nozzle. In this study, a high-speed observation technique with an image analysis technique was applied to the cloud cavitation behavior in the nozzle to make clear the mechanism of unsteady behavior. As a result, it was observed in the nozzle that the periodic behavior occurs in the cloud cavitation and pressure waves form at the collapse of clouds shed downstream. Also, it was found through the image analysis based on the present technique that the pressure wave plays a role as a trigger mechanism to cause a reentrant motion at the downstream end of an attached cavity.

Ionospheric disturbances following the March 2015 geomagnetic storm from GPS observations in China

When strong solar activities and geomagnetic storms happen, satellite communications and navigation system will be strongly disturbed. It is of great significance to monitor ionospheric disturbances,because empirical models cannot capture ionospheric anomalous disturbances well. Nowadays, dualfrequency GPS(Global Positioning System) observations can be used to estimate the ionospheric total electron content, correct the ionospheric delay and analyze the response of the ionosphere to geomagnetic storms. In this paper, the ionospheric response to the geomagnetic storm occurred in March 2015 is investigated using GPS observations provided by Crustal Movement of Observation Network of China. The result shows that this storm increases the electron density in the ionosphere quickly and disrupts the structure of the northern equatorial anomaly region at the beginning. In the main process stage, compared with that in the quite periods, the VTEC(Vertical Total Electron Content)around the longitude of 120°E decreases by 50% and the amount of depletion is larger in the high latitude region than that in the low latitude region. We also find the height of the peak electron density in F2 layer increases during the geomagnetic storm from the electron density profiles derived from GPS occultation mission.

东亚地区云垂直结构的CloudSat卫星观测研究

本文利用卫星CloudSat同时结合了与其同轨道的卫星CALIPSO(Cloud-AerosolLidarandInfraredPathfinderSatelliteObservations)2007至2009年3年的观测资料,将东亚地区划分为六个研究区域,着重研究了东亚地区云垂直分布的统计特征。结果表明:东亚地区不同高度的云量之和具有明显的季节变化趋势,夏季最大,春秋次之,冬季最小。海洋上空的单层云量最大值出现在冬季,而在陆地上空则出现在夏季。从云出现概率来看,东亚地区单层云出现的概率在春、夏、秋、冬季节依次为52.2%,48.1%,49.2%和51.9%,而多层(2层和2层以上)云出现的概率在春、夏、秋、冬季节分别为24.2%,31.0%,19.7%,15.8%。云出现的总概率和多层云出现的概率,在六个区域都呈现出夏季最大,冬季最小;对4个季节都呈现出东亚南部比东亚北部大,海洋上空比陆地上空大的特点,表明云出现的总概率的季节变化主要由多层云出现的概率的变化决定。东亚地区云系统中最高层云云顶的高度,在夏季最高,为15.9km,在冬季最低,为8.2km;在东亚南部和海洋上空较高,平均为15.1km;在东亚北部较低,平均为12.1km,且呈现东亚南北部之间差异较大的特点。东亚地区云系统的云层厚度基本位于1km到3km之间,且夏季大,冬季小;对同一季节,不同区域的云层厚度差别较小;当多层云系统中的云层数目增加时,云层的平均厚度减少,且较高层的云层平均厚度大于较低层的。云层间距的概率分布基本呈单峰分布,出现峰值范围的云层间距在1到3km之间,各区域之间没有明显差别,季节变化也不大。本文的研究为在气候模式中精确描述云的垂直结构提供了有用的参数化依据。

一次北极地区低云转化为海雾的观测研究

2016年8月11日,中国第七次北极科学考察在82.75°N,163.25°W附近观测到一次海雾过程。本文利用船载观测数据和浮冰站通量系统观测数据,结合再分析资料,对海雾的形成机理进行研究。结果表明,冷高压系统在冰面的加强,增强了下沉运动,使逆温层高度明显降低。伴随低云云底高度下降,冰面能见度下降至不足1 km。在低云下降过程中,冰面气象要素表现为增湿和降温的特征。冷平流和冰面的冷却作用导致气温下降,高低压之间的偏南气流将楚科奇海的水汽输送到密集浮冰区,为海雾提供了充足的水汽。冰面的升华和蒸发作用一方面对底层大气水汽增加有贡献,另一方面使冰面失去潜热导致冰面温度下降。

基于飞机观测的华北降水云系上升气流区微结构研究

上升气流是成云致雨的基本条件之一。本文利用河北省2017年5月一次层积混合云的机载云物理探测系统测量资料,研究了云中上升气流速度分布,云微结构特征以及二者的相关性。结果表明:云中上升气流速度随高度呈抛物线型分布,云底部较小(0.75±0.52 m s^(−1)),云中部最大(3.64±2 m s^(−1)),云顶部最小(0.32±0.29 m s^(−1));发现随高度增加,云中上升气流区内冰粒子形状依次以片状、针状、柱状为主;暖云上升气流区中,上升气流速度与液态含水量正相关,相关系数为0.61;强垂直气流条件下云滴数浓度、最大云滴尺度大于弱垂直气流相应的数值,强垂直气流云粒子谱更符合Г函数分布。

河北省一次层状云冰相粒子及融化层微物理特性研究

层状云中冰粒子、融化层及以下粒子微物理特性演变规律的科学认识对于中国云降水参数化、降水预报及人工影响天气研究具有重要意义。利用2019年8月24日河北省一次层状云飞机观测资料,分析云中负温层、融化层及以下粒子群微物理特性的演变。研究表明,云中负温层冰相粒子以聚合体为主,部分区域存在霰粒子。云中冰相粒子通过凇附、碰连和贝吉龙过程增长。相对来说,上升气流较强及相对湿度较高云区的冰相粒子数浓度较高、粒子谱较宽。融化层中,中等大小粒子数浓度存在增大趋势,说明融化层中不同粒径冰相粒子的融化速率存在差异。研究发现,高相对湿度区(RH≥95%)粒子融化速率较低相对湿度区(RH<95%)快,低相对湿度区中表面融化的粒子蒸发吸收潜热,使环境温度降低,减缓粒子融化速率。融化层高相对湿度区降水粒子谱分布的截距大于低相对湿度区,斜率与低相对湿度区接近。融化层降水粒子负指数谱分布的截距与斜率均大于负温层,0℃层高度以下HVPS探测到的粒子谱分布参数N_(0)与λ呈正相关,线性函数能较好地拟合二者的关系。对于D_(max)大于1000μm的降水粒子,谱参数λ与D_(max)呈负相关,幂函数能较好地拟合二者的关系。数值研究发现,0℃层之下云内存在混合相态粒子,观测和模拟结果均发现0℃层之下中等大小的粒子数浓度更高。分档方案数值模拟得到的降水粒子平均谱的截距与观测资料一致,但斜率大于观测结果。研究结合飞机观测资料与模式,对云内融化层中粒子微物理特性有了更加深入的认识。

沙尘暴天气下云的飞机观测研究

沙尘暴天气下云的飞机观测极其缺乏,为了研究亚洲中蒙地区沙尘气溶胶对云的影响,利用北京地区云的综合外场观测试验数据,分析2009年4月24日由蒙古气旋和冷锋造成的强沙尘暴天气下云的观测个例,对比分析沙尘云和清洁云垂直观测。结果表明:从亚洲中蒙地区输送的沙尘气溶胶是华北区域重要的冰核来源,可被垂直输送至云顶以上3200 m高度,并通过改变冰晶形成过程影响云顶温度(-6~-3℃)较高的积云性层积云微物理结构。在相同温度下,沙尘云中冰晶平均数浓度较清洁云增加近10倍,液态水含量减少约1倍,云中形成大量小冰晶粒子,凇附过程受到抑制,降水粒子平均数浓度较清洁云中明显减少10倍以上,无论云滴、冰雪晶还是降水粒子谱宽均较清洁云明显变窄,并最终减弱降水,对华北区域的天气和气候产生重要影响。