Outage Probability Analysis for D2D-Enabled Heterogeneous Cellular Networks with Exclusion Zone:A Stochastic Geometry Approach

Interference management is one of the most important issues in the device-to-device(D2D)-enabled heterogeneous cellular networks(HetCNets)due to the coexistence of massive cellular and D2D devices in which D2D devices reuse the cellular spectrum.To alleviate the interference,an efficient interference management way is to set exclusion zones around the cellular receivers.In this paper,we adopt a stochastic geometry approach to analyze the outage probabilities of cellular and D2D users in the D2D-enabled HetCNets.The main difficulties contain three aspects:1)how to model the location randomness of base stations,cellular and D2D users in practical networks;2)how to capture the randomness and interrelation of cellular and D2D transmissions due to the existence of random exclusion zones;3)how to characterize the different types of interference and their impacts on the outage probabilities of cellular and D2D users.We then run extensive Monte-Carlo simulations which manifest that our theoretical model is very accurate.

Uplink Performance Analysis in Multi-Tier Heterogeneous Cellular Networks with Power Control and Biased User Association

A K-tier uplink heterogeneous cellular network is modelled and analysed by accounting for both truncated channel inversion power control and biased user association. Each user has a maximum transmit power constraint and transmits data when it has sufficient transmit power to perform channel inversion. With biased user association, each user is associated with a base station(BS) that provides the maximum received power weighted by a bias factor, but not their nearest BS. Stochastic geometry is used to evaluate the performances of the proposed system model in terms of the outage probability and ergodic rate for each tier as functions of the biased and power control parameters. Simulations validate our analytical derivations. Numerical results show that there exists a trade-off introduced by the power cut-off threshold and the maximum user transmit power constraint. When the maximum user transmit power becomes a binding constraint, the overall performance is independent of BS densities. In addition, we have shown that it is beneficial for the outage and rate performances by optimizing different network parameters such as the power cut-off threshold as well as the biased factors.

Energy Efficiency Optimization for Heterogeneous Cellular Networks Modeled by Matérn Hard-Core Point Process

The Poisson point process(PPP) has been widely used in wireless network modeling and performance analysis due to the independence between its nodes. Therefore, it may not be a suitable model for many of the exclusive networks between the nodes. This paper analyzes the energy efficiency(EE) and optimizes the two-tier heterogeneous cellular networks(Het Nets). Considering the mutual exclusion between macro base stations(MBSs) distribution, the deployment of MBSs is modeled by the Matérn hard-core point process(MHCPP), and the deployment of pico base stations(PBSs) is modeled by the PPP. We adopt a simple approximation method to study the signal to interference ratio(SIR) distribution in two-tier MHCPP-PPP networks and then derive the coverage probabilities, the average data rates and the energy efficiency of Het Nets. Finally, an optimization algorithm is proposed to improve the EE of Het Nets by controlling the transmit power of PBSs. The simulation results show that the EE of a system can be effectively improved by selecting the appropriate transmit power for the PBSs. In addition, two-tier MHCPP-PPP Het Nets have higher energy efficiency than two-tier PPP-PPP Het Nets.

Physical Layer Security of Multi-hop Aided Downlink MIMO heterogeneous Cellular Networks

This study investigates physical layer security in downlink multipleinput multiple-output(MIMO) multi-hop heterogeneous cellular networks(MHCNs),in which communication between mobile users and base stations(BSs) is established by a single or multiple hops,to address the problem of insufficient security performance of MIMO heterogeneous cellular networks.First,two-dimensional homogeneous Poisson point processes(HPPPs) are utilized to model the locations of K-tier BSs in MIMO MHCNs and receivers,including those of legitimate users and eavesdroppers.Second,based on the channel gain distribution and the statistics property of HPPP,the achievable ergodic rates of the main and eavesdropper channels in direct and ad hoc links are derived,respectively.Third,the secrecy coverage probability and the achievable ergodic secrecy throughput of downlink MIMO MHCNs are explored,and their expressions are derived.Lastly,the correctness of the theoretical derivation is verified through Monte Carlo simulations.

Deep reinforcement learning-based resource allocation for D2D communications in heterogeneous cellular networks

Device-to-Device(D2D)communication-enabled Heterogeneous Cellular Networks(HCNs)have been a promising technology for satisfying the growing demands of smart mobile devices in fifth-generation mobile networks.The introduction of Millimeter Wave(mm-wave)communications into D2D-enabled HCNs allows higher system capacity and user data rates to be achieved.However,interference among cellular and D2D links remains severe due to spectrum sharing.In this paper,to guarantee user Quality of Service(QoS)requirements and effectively manage the interference among users,we focus on investigating the joint optimization problem of mode selection and channel allocation in D2D-enabled HCNs with mm-wave and cellular bands.The optimization problem is formulated as the maximization of the system sum-rate under QoS constraints of both cellular and D2D users in HCNs.To solve it,a distributed multiagent deep Q-network algorithm is proposed,where the reward function is redefined according to the optimization objective.In addition,to reduce signaling overhead,a partial information sharing strategy that does not observe global information is proposed for D2D agents to select the optimal mode and channel through learning.Simulation results illustrate that the proposed joint optimization algorithm possesses good convergence and achieves better system performance compared with other existing schemes.

Dynamic Spectrum Control-Assisted Secure and Efficient Transmission Scheme in Heterogeneous Cellular Networks

Heterogeneous cellular networks(HCNs)are envisioned as a promising architecture to provide seamless wireless coverage and increase network capacity.However,the densified multi-tier network architecture introduces excessive intra-and cross-tier interference and makes HCNs vulnerable to eavesdropping attacks.In this article,a dynamic spectrum control(DSC)-assisted transmission scheme is proposed for HCNs to strengthen network security and increase the network capacity.Specifically,the proposed DSC-assisted transmission scheme leverages the idea of block cryptography to generate sequence families,which represent the transmission decisions,by performing iterative and orthogonal sequence transformations.Based on the sequence families,multiple users can dynamically occupy different frequency slots for data transmission simultaneously.In addition,the collision probability of the data transmission is analyzed,which results in closed-form expressions of the reliable transmission probability and the secrecy probability.Then,the upper and lower bounds of network capacity are further derived with given requirements on the reliable and secure transmission probabilities.Simulation results demonstrate that the proposed DSC-assisted scheme can outperform the benchmark scheme in terms of security performance.Finally,the impacts of key factors in the proposed DSC-assisted scheme on the network capacity and security are evaluated and discussed.

Joint resource allocation with QoS provisioning in K-tier heterogeneous cellular networks

In this paper, the joint resource allocation （RA） problem with quality of service （QoS） provisioning in downlink heterogeneous cellular networks （HCN） is studied. To fully exploit the network capacity, the HCN is modeled as a K-tier cellular network where each tier＇s base stations （BSs） have different properties. However, deploying numbers of low power nodes （LPNs） which share the same frequency band with macrocell generates severe inter-cell interference. Enhancement of system capacity is restricted for inter-cell interference. Therefore, a feasible RA scheme has to be developed to fully exploit the resource efficiency. Under the constraint of inter-cell interference, we formulate the RA problem as a mixed integer programming problem. To solve the optimization problem we develop a two-stage solution. An integer subchannel assignment algorithm and Lagrangian-based power allocation algorithm are designed. In addition, the biasing factor is also considered and the caused influence on system capacity is evaluated. Simulation results show that the proposed algorithms achieve a good tradeoff between network capacity and interference. Moreover, the average network efficiency is highly improved and the outage probability is also decreased.

Load-balance cell association for improving network capacity in heterogeneous cellular networks

Heterogeneous cellular networks improve the spectrum efficiency and coverage of wireless communication networks by deploying low power base station （BS） overlapping the conventional macro cell. But due to the disparity between the transmit powers of the macro BS and the low power BS, cell association strategy developed for the conventional homogeneous networks may lead to a highly unbalanced traffic loading with most of the traffic concentrated on the macro BS. In this paper, we propose a load-balance cell association scheme for heterogeneous cellular network aiming to maximize the network capacity. By relaxing the association constraints, we can get the upper bound of optimal solution and convert the primal problem into a convex optimization problem. Furthermore we propose a Lagrange multipliers based distributed algorithm by using Lagrange dual theory to solve the convex optimization, which converges to an optimal solution with a theoretical performance guarantee. With the proposed algorithm, mobile terminals （MTs） need to jointly consider their traffic type, received signal-to-interference-noise-ratios （SINRs） from BSs, and the load of BSs when they choose server BS. Simulation results show that the load balance between macro and pico BS is achieved and network capacity is improved significantly by our proposed cell association algorithm.

Price-Based Power Allocation in Two-Tier Spectrum Sharing Heterogeneous Cellular Networks

Attributable to the using of the same spec-trum resources,heterogeneous cellular networks have serious interference problems,which greatly restricts the performance of the network.In this paper,the price-based power allocation for femtocells underlaying a macrocell heterogeneous cellular network is investigated.By ex-ploiting interference pricing mechanism,we formulate the interference management problem as a Stackelberg game and make a joint utility optimization of macrocells and femtocells.Specially,the energy consumption of macrocell users and the transmission rate utility of femtocell users are considered in this utility optimization problem.In the game model,the macrocell base station is regarded as a leader,which coordinates the interference from femtocell users to the macrocell users by pricing the inter-ference.On the other hand,the femtocell base stations are modelled as followers.The femtocell users obtain their power allocation by pricing.After proving the existence of the Stackelberg equilibrium,the non-uniform and uniform pricing schemes are proposed, and distributed interference pricing algorithm is proposed to address uniform interference price problem. Simulation results demonstrate that the proposed schemes are effective on interference management and power allocation.

Single-cell profiling of the pig cecum at various developmental stages

The gastrointestinal tract is essential for food digestion,nutrient absorption,waste elimination,and microbial defense.Single-cell transcriptome profiling of the intestinal tract has greatly enriched our understanding of cellular diversity,functional heterogeneity,and their importance in intestinal tract development and disease.Although such profiling has been extensively conducted in humans and mice,the single-cell gene expression landscape of the pig cecum remains unexplored.Here,single-cell RNA sequencing was performed on 45572 cells obtained from seven cecal samples in pigs at four different developmental stages(days(D)30,42,150,and 730).Analysis revealed 12 major cell types and 38 subtypes,as well as their distinctive genes,transcription factors,and regulons,many of which were conserved in humans.An increase in the relative proportions of CD8^(+)T and Granzyme A(low expression)natural killer T cells(GZMA^(low)NKT)cells and a decrease in the relative proportions of epithelial stem cells,Tregs,RHEX^(+)T cells,and plasmacytoid dendritic cells(pDCs)were noted across the developmental stages.Moreover,the post-weaning period exhibited an up-regulation in mitochondrial genes,COX2 and ND2,as well as genes involved in immune activation in multiple cell types.Cell-cell crosstalk analysis indicated that IBP6^(+)fibroblasts were the main signal senders at D30,whereas IBP6^(−)fibroblasts assumed this role at the other stages.NKT cells established interactions with epithelial cells and IBP6^(+)fibroblasts in the D730 cecum through mediation of GZMA-F2RL1/F2RL2 pairs.This study provides valuable insights into cellular heterogeneity and function in the pig cecum at different development stages.

Food nutrition and toxicology targeting on specific organs in the era of single-cell sequencing

Due to the complex natures of dietary food components,it is difficult to elucidate how the compounds affect host health.Dietary food often selectively presents its mechanism of action on different cell types,and participates in the modulation of targeted cells and their microenvironments within organs.However,the limitations of traditional in vitro assays or in vivo animal experiments cannot comprehensively examine cellular heterogeneity and the tissue-biased influences.Single-cell RNA sequencing(sc RNA-seq)has emerged as an indispensable methodology to decompose tissues into different cell types for the demonstration of transcriptional profiles of individual cells.Sc RNA-seq applications has been summarized on three typical organs(brain,liver,kidney),and two representative immune-and tumor related health problems.The everincreasing role of sc RNA-seq in dietary food research with further improvement can provide sub-cellular information and the coupling between other cellular modalities.In this review,we propose utilizing sc RNAseq to more effectively capture the subtle and complex effects of food chemicals,and how they may lead to health problems at single-cell resolution.This novel technique will be valuable to elucidate the underlying mechanism of both the health benefits of food nutrients and the detrimental consequences food toxicants at the cellular level.

Modeling and coverage analysis of heterogeneous sub-6GHz-millimeter wave networks

The joint adoption of sub-6GHz and millimeter wave(mmWave)technology can prevent the blind spots of coverage,enabling comprehensive coverage while realizing high-speed communication rate.According to the sensitivity of mmWave,base stations should be more densely deployed,which is not well described by existing Poisson hole process(PHP)and the Poisson point process(PPP)models.This paper establishes a sub-6GHz and mmWave hybrid heterogeneous cellular network based on the modified Poisson hole process(MPHP).In our proposed model,the sub-6GHz base stations follow the PPP,and the mmWave base stations(MBSs)follow MPHP distribution.The expressions of the coverage probability are derived by using the interference calculation method of integrating the nearest sector exclusion area.Our theoretical analysis has been verified through simulation results,suggesting that the increase in the cell radius decreases the coverage probability of signal-to-interference-plus-noise ratio(SINR),whereas the increase in the sector parameter has the opposite effect.The variation of sub-6GHz base stations(SBSs)density imposes more significant impact than the MBSs on the SINR coverage probability.In addition,the decrease in MBSs density will reduce the average bandwidth allocated to the user equipment(UE),thus reducing the rate coverage probability.

Decoding Human Biology and Disease Using Single-cell Omics Technologies

Over the past decade,advances in single-cell omics(SCO)technologies have enabled the investigation of cellular heterogeneity at an unprecedented resolution and scale,opening a new avenue for understanding human biology and disease.In this review,we summarize the developments of sequencing-based SCO technologies and computational methods,and focus on considerable insights acquired from SCO sequencing studies to understand normal and diseased properties,with a particular emphasis on cancer research.We also discuss the technological improvements of SCO and its possible contribution to fundamental research of the human,as well as its great potential in clinical diagnoses and personalized therapies of human disease.

Omics Views of Mechanisms for Cell Fate Determination in Early Mammalian Development

During mammalian preimplantation development,a totipotent zygote undergoes several cell cleavages and two rounds of cell fate determination,ultimately forming a mature blastocyst.Along with compaction,the establishment of apicobasal cell polarity breaks the symmetry of an embryo and guides subsequent cell fate choice.Although the lineage segregation of the inner cell mass(ICM)and trophectoderm(TE)is the first symbol of cell differentiation,several molecules have been shown to bias the early cell fate through their inter-cellular variations at much earlier stages,including the 2-and 4-cell stages.The underlying mechanisms of early cell fate determination have long been an important research topic.In this review,we summarize the molecular events that occur during early embryogenesis,as well as the current understanding of their regulatory roles in cell fate decisions.Moreover,as powerful tools for early embryogenesis research,single-cell omics techniques have been applied to both mouse and human preimplantation embryos and have contributed to the discovery of cell fate regulators.Here,we summarize their applications in the research of preimplantation embryos,and provide new insights and perspectives on cell fate regulation.

Joint user association and resource partition for downlink-uplink decoupling in multi-tier HetNets

Traditional cellular networks require the downlink (DL) and uplink (UL) of mobile users (MUs) to be associated with a single base station (BS). However, the power gap between BSs and MUs in different transmission environments results in the BS with the strongest downlink differing from the BS with the strongest uplink. In addition, the significant increase in the number of wireless machine type communication (MTC) devices accessing cellular networks has created a DL/UL traffic imbalance with higher traffic volume on the uplink. In this paper,a joint user association and resource partition framework for downlink-uplink decoupling (DUDe) is developed for a tiered heterogeneous cellular network (HCN). Different from the traditional association rules such as maximal received power and range extension, a coalition game based scheme is proposed for the optimal user association with DUDe. The stability and convergence of this scheme are proven and shown to converge to a Nash equilibrium at a geometric rate. Moreover, the DL and UL optimal bandwidth partition for BSs is derived based on user association considering fairness. Extensive simulation results demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed scheme,which enhances the sum rate compared with other user association strategies.

Energy efficiency optimization for HCNs based on small base station transmission power allocation

In the research of green communication,considering the base station(BS)power allocation from the perspective of energy efficiency(EE)is meaningful for heterogeneous cellular networks(HCNs)optimization.The EE of two-tier HCNs was analyzed and a new method for the network EE optimization was proposed by adjusting the small BS transmitting power.First,the HCNs ware modeled by homogeneous Poisson point processes(PPPs),and the coverage probability of BSs in each tier was derived.Second,according to the definition of EE,and the closed-form of EE was given by deriving the total power consumption and total throughput of HCNs respectively.At last,the analytical performance of the EE of HCNs on the small BS transmission power was analyzed,and a small BS power optimization algorithm was proposed to maximize the EE.Simulation results show that,the transmission power of small BS has a significant impact on the EE of HCNs.Furthermore,by optimizing the transmission power of small BS,the EE of HCNs can be improved effectively.

A Single-cell Transcriptome Atlas of Cashmere Goat Hair Follicle Morphogenesis

Cashmere,also known as soft gold,is produced from the secondary hair follicles(SHFs)of cashmere goats.The number of SHFs determines the yield and quality of cashmere;therefore,it is of interest to investigate the transcriptional profiles present during cashmere goat hair follicle development.However,mechanisms underlying this development process remain largely unexplored,and studies regarding hair follicle development mostly use a murine research model.In this study,to provide a comprehensive understanding of cellular heterogeneity and cell fate decisions,single-cell RNA sequencing was performed on 19,705 single cells of the dorsal skin from cashmere goat fetuses at induction(embryonic day 60;E60),organogenesis(E90),and cytodifferentiation(E120)stages.For the first time,unsupervised clustering analysis identified 16 cell clusters,and their corresponding cell types were also characterized.Based on lineage inference,a detailed molecular landscape was revealed along the dermal and epidermal cell lineage developmental pathways.Notably,our current data also confirmed the heterogeneity of dermal papillae from different hair follicle types,which was further validated by immunofluorescence analysis.The current study identifies different biomarkers during cashmere goat hair follicle development and has implications for cashmere goat breeding in the future.